D. Berwick and L. Leape, Reducing errors in medicine, BMJ, vol.319, issue.7203, pp.136-137, 1999.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.319.7203.136

T. Brennan, L. Leape, N. Laird, L. Hebert, A. Localio et al., Incidence of Adverse Events and Negligence in Hospitalized Patients, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.324, issue.6, pp.145-151, 1991.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199102073240604

L. Leape, T. Brennan, N. Laird, A. Lawthers, A. Localio et al., The Nature of Adverse Events in Hospitalized Patients, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.324, issue.6, pp.377-384, 1991.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199102073240605

A. Localio, A. Lawthers, T. Brennan, N. Laird, L. Hebert et al., Relation between Malpractice Claims and Adverse Events Due to Negligence, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.325, issue.4, pp.245-251, 1991.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJM199107253250405

L. Kohn, J. Corrigan, and M. Donaldson, The Institute of Medicine) To Er ris Human : building a safer health system, 2000.

H. Stelfox, S. Palmisani, C. Scurlock, E. Orav, and D. Bates, The "To Err is Human" report and the patient safety literature, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.15, issue.3, pp.174-178, 2006.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2006.017947

C. Vincent, Understanding and Responding to Adverse Events, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.348, issue.11, pp.1051-1056, 2003.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMhpr020760

C. Vincent, S. Taylor-adams, E. Chapman, D. Hewett, S. Prior et al., How to investigate and analyse clinical incidents: Clinical Risk Unit and Association of Litigation and Risk Management protocol, BMJ, vol.320, issue.7237, pp.777-781, 2000.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.320.7237.777

B. Norris, Human factors and safe patient care, Journal of Nursing Management, vol.139, issue.2, pp.203-211, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2834.2009.00975.x

A. Cuschieri, Nature of Human Error, Annals of Surgery, vol.244, issue.5, pp.642-648, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.sla.0000243601.36582.18

T. Johnson, X. Tang, M. Graham, J. Brixey, J. Turley et al., Attitudes Toward Medical Device Use Errors and the Prevention of Adverse Events, The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety, vol.33, issue.11, pp.689-694, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/S1553-7250(07)33079-1

J. Vader, B. Burnand, F. Froehlich, K. Dupriez, T. Larequi-lauber et al., Appropriateness of Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy: Comparison of American and Swiss Criteria, International Journal for Quality in Health Care, vol.9, issue.2, pp.87-92, 1997.
DOI : 10.1093/intqhc/9.2.87

P. Gross and B. Patel, Reducing Antibiotic Overuse: A Call for a National Performance Measure for Not Treating Asymptomatic Bacteriuria, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.45, issue.10, pp.1335-1337, 1998.
DOI : 10.1086/522183

K. Cruz and C. Franklin, THE PULMONARY ARTERY CATHETER: USES AND CONTROVERSIES, Critical Care Clinics, vol.17, issue.2, pp.271-291, 2001.
DOI : 10.1016/S0749-0704(05)70167-6

R. Amalberti, D. Benhamou, Y. Auroy, and L. Degos, Adverse events in medicine: Easy to count, complicated to understand, and complex to prevent, Journal of Biomedical Informatics, vol.44, issue.3, pp.390-394, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jbi.2009.06.004

N. Donaldson, D. Rutledge, and J. Ashley, Outcomes of Adoption: Measuring Evidence Uptake by Individuals and Organizations, Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing, vol.18, issue.12, pp.41-51, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9149(03)00821-X

B. Copnell, V. Hagger, S. Wilson, S. Evans, P. Sprivulis et al., Measuring the quality of hospital care: an inventory of indicators, Internal Medicine Journal, vol.64, issue.1, pp.352-360, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1445-5994.2009.01961.x

J. Etchegaray, S. John, C. Thomas, and E. , Measures and measurement of high-performance work systems in health care settings, Health Care Management Review, vol.36, issue.1, pp.38-46, 2011.
DOI : 10.1097/HMR.0b013e3181f685a4

V. Patel, H. Ashrafian, K. Ahmed, S. Arora, S. Jiwan et al., How has healthcare research performance been assessed? A systematic review, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol.3, issue.6, pp.251-261, 2011.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.314.7079.497

Y. Chuang, L. Ginsburg, and W. Berta, Learning from preventable adverse events in health care organizations, Health Care Management Review, vol.32, issue.4, pp.330-340, 2007.
DOI : 10.1097/01.HMR.0000296790.39128.20

B. Virnig and M. Mcbean, Administrative Data for Public Health Surveillance and Planning, Annual Review of Public Health, vol.22, issue.1, pp.213-230, 2001.
DOI : 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.22.1.213

P. Kilbridge and D. Classen, The Informatics Opportunities at the Intersection of Patient Safety and Clinical Informatics, Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, vol.15, issue.4, pp.397-407, 2008.
DOI : 10.1197/jamia.M2735

D. Bates, O. Neil, A. Boyle, D. Teich, J. Chertow et al., Potential Identifiability and Preventability of Adverse Events Using Information Systems, Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, vol.1, issue.5, pp.404-411, 1994.
DOI : 10.1136/jamia.1994.95153428

L. Iezzoni, Assessing Quality Using Administrative Data, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.127, issue.8_Part_2, pp.666-674, 1997.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-127-8_Part_2-199710151-00048

L. Iezzoni, J. Daley, T. Heeren, S. Foley, E. Fisher et al., Identifying Complications of Care Using Administrative Data, Medical Care, vol.32, issue.7, pp.700-715, 1994.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-199407000-00004

C. Zhan and M. Miller, Administrative data based patient safety research: a critical review, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.12, issue.90002, pp.58-63, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/qhc.12.suppl_2.ii58

M. Miller, A. Elixhauser, C. Zhan, and G. Meyer, Patient Safety Indicators: using administrative data to identify potential patient safety concerns, Health Serv Res, vol.36, pp.110-132, 2001.

P. Romano, J. Geppert, S. Davies, M. Miller, A. Elixhauser et al., A National Profile Of Patient Safety In U.S. Hospitals, Health Affairs, vol.22, issue.2, pp.154-166, 2003.
DOI : 10.1377/hlthaff.22.2.154

A. Powell, H. Davies, and R. Thomson, Using routine comparative data to assess the quality of health care: understanding and avoiding common pitfalls, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.12, issue.2, pp.122-128, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/qhc.12.2.122

C. Black and N. Roos, Administrative Data, Medical Care, vol.36, issue.1, pp.3-5, 1998.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-199801000-00002

D. Lieberman, Pitfalls of Using Administrative Data for Research, Digestive Diseases and Sciences, vol.97, issue.6, pp.1506-1508, 2010.
DOI : 10.1007/s10620-010-1246-x

C. Mcdonald, J. Overhage, P. Dexter, B. Takesue, and D. Dwyer, A Framework for Capturing Clinical Data Sets from Computerized Sources, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.127, issue.8_Part_2, pp.675-682, 1997.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-127-8_Part_2-199710151-00049

P. Romano, B. Chan, M. Schembri, and J. Rainwater, Can Administrative Data Be Used to Compare Postoperative Complication Rates Across Hospitals?, Medical Care, vol.40, issue.10, pp.856-867, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-200210000-00004

K. Walshe, Adverse events in health care: issues in measurement, Quality in Health Care, vol.9, issue.1, pp.47-52, 2000.
DOI : 10.1136/qhc.9.1.47

W. Best, S. Khuri, M. Phelan, K. Hur, W. Henderson et al., Identifying patient preoperative risk factors and postoperative adverse events in administrative databases: results from the department of veterans affairs national surgical quality improvement program 1 1No competing interests declared., Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.194, issue.3, pp.257-266, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S1072-7515(01)01183-8

P. Romano, Asking too much of administrative data?, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.196, issue.2, pp.337-338, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S1072-7515(02)01761-1

A. Long and P. Dixon, Monitoring outcomes in routine practice: defining appropriate measurement criteria, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, vol.32, issue.1, pp.71-78, 1996.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2753.1996.tb00029.x

M. Pringle, T. Wilson, and R. Grol, Measuring "goodness" in individuals and healthcare systems, BMJ, vol.325, issue.7366, pp.704-707, 2002.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.325.7366.704

H. Brenner and O. Gefeller, VARIATION OF SENSITIVITY, SPECIFICITY, LIKELIHOOD RATIOS AND PREDICTIVE VALUES WITH DISEASE PREVALENCE, Statistics in Medicine, vol.16, issue.9, pp.981-991, 1997.
DOI : 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0258(19970515)16:9<981::AID-SIM510>3.0.CO;2-N

C. Kimberlin and A. Winterstein, Validity and reliability of measurement instruments used in research, American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, vol.65, issue.23, pp.2276-2284, 2008.
DOI : 10.2146/ajhp070364

M. Berg, Y. Meijerink, M. Gras, A. Goossensen, W. Schellekens et al., Feasibility first: Developing public performance indicators on patient safety and clinical effectiveness for Dutch hospitals, Health Policy, vol.75, issue.1, pp.59-73, 2005.
DOI : 10.1016/j.healthpol.2005.02.007

D. Coster, C. Quan, H. Finlayson, A. Gao, M. Halfon et al., Identifying priorities in methodological research using ICD-9-CM and ICD-10 administrative data: report from an international consortium, BMC Health Services Research, vol.57, issue.1, p.77, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2004.03.012

M. Charlson, P. Pompei, K. Ales, and C. Mackenzie, A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: Development and validation, Journal of Chronic Diseases, vol.40, issue.5, pp.373-383, 1987.
DOI : 10.1016/0021-9681(87)90171-8

A. Elixhauser, C. Steiner, D. Harris, and R. Coffey, Comorbidity Measures for Use with Administrative Data, Medical Care, vol.36, issue.1, pp.8-27, 1998.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-199801000-00004

C. Smith, -Above All, Do No Harm!, The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, vol.23, issue.4, pp.371-377, 2005.
DOI : 10.1177/0091270004273680

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00309731

H. Markel, ???I Swear by Apollo??? ??? On Taking the Hippocratic Oath, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.350, issue.20, pp.2026-2029, 2004.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMp048092

T. Brewin, Primum non nocere?, Lancet, vol.344, pp.1487-1488, 1994.

R. Gillon, "Primum non nocere" and the principle of non-maleficence., BMJ, vol.291, issue.6488, pp.130-131, 1985.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.291.6488.130

W. Campbell and B. Claude, 1813-1878: the founder of modern medicine, Can Med Assoc J, vol.89, pp.127-131, 1963.

A. Morabia, Claude Bernard was a 19th century proponent of medicine based on evidence, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol.59, issue.11, pp.1150-1154, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.02.012

E. Shuster, The Nuremberg Code: Hippocratic ethics and human rights, The Lancet, vol.351, issue.9107, pp.974-977, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)60641-1

A. Richardt, Molière et les docteurs, Hist Sci Med, vol.41, pp.189-195, 2007.

C. Willson, Evidence-Based Medicine, Evidence-Based Medicine, vol.5, issue.5, pp.285-286, 2004.
DOI : 10.1136/ebm.5.5.136

L. Leape, New World of Patient Safety, Archives of Surgery, vol.144, issue.5, pp.394-398, 2009.
DOI : 10.1001/archsurg.2009.78

K. Walshe and T. Rundall, Evidence-based Management: From Theory to Practice in Health Care, The Milbank Quarterly, vol.79, issue.3, pp.429-457, 2001.
DOI : 10.1111/1468-0009.00214

D. Aujesky, J. Cornuz, J. Bosson, H. Bounameaux, J. Emmerich et al., Uptake of new treatment strategies for deep vein thrombosis: an international audit, International Journal for Quality in Health Care, vol.16, issue.3, pp.193-200, 2004.
DOI : 10.1093/intqhc/mzh039

V. Fung, J. Schmittdiel, B. Fireman, A. Meer, S. Thomas et al., Meaningful Variation in Performance, Medical Care, vol.48, issue.2, pp.140-148, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181bd4dc3

S. Bell, T. Delbanco, L. Anderson-shaw, T. Mcdonald, and T. Gallagher, Accountability for Medical Error, Chest, vol.140, issue.2, pp.519-526, 2011.
DOI : 10.1378/chest.10-2533

J. Greenwald, L. Halasyamani, J. Greene, C. Lacivita, E. Stucky et al., Making inpatient medication reconciliation patient centered, clinically relevant and implementable: A consensus statement on key principles and necessary first steps, Journal of Hospital Medicine, vol.5, issue.8, pp.477-485, 2010.
DOI : 10.1002/jhm.849

M. Potylycki, S. Kimmel, M. Ritter, T. Capuano, L. Gross et al., Nonpunitive Medication Error Reporting, JONA: The Journal of Nursing Administration, vol.36, issue.7, pp.370-376, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/00005110-200607000-00010

N. Khatri, G. Brown, and L. Hicks, From a blame culture to a just culture in health care, Health Care Management Review, vol.34, issue.4, pp.312-322, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/HMR.0b013e3181a3b709

H. Braude, Clinical intuition versus statistics: different modes of tacit knowledge in clinical epidemiology and evidence-based medicine, Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, vol.185, issue.2, pp.181-198, 2009.
DOI : 10.1007/s11017-009-9106-4

S. Berenholtz and P. Pronovost, Barriers to translating evidence into practice, Current Opinion in Critical Care, vol.9, issue.4, pp.321-325, 2003.
DOI : 10.1097/00075198-200308000-00012

G. Bosse, J. Breuer, and C. Spies, The resistance to changing guidelines ??? what are the challenges and how to meet them, Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology, vol.20, issue.3, pp.379-395, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bpa.2006.02.005

O. Leary, K. Buck, R. Fligiel, H. Haviley, C. Slade et al., Structured interdisciplinary rounds in a medical teaching unit: improving patient safety, Arch Intern Med, vol.171, pp.678-684, 2011.

E. Parmelli, G. Flodgren, M. Schaafsma, N. Baillie, F. Beyer et al., The effectiveness of strategies to change organisational culture to improve healthcare performance, Cochrane Database Syst Rev, p.8315, 2011.

T. Manser, Teamwork and patient safety in dynamic domains of healthcare: a review of the literature, Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, vol.91, issue.2, pp.143-151, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1399-6576.2008.01717.x

S. Singer, A. Falwell, D. Gaba, and L. Baker, Patient Safety Climate in US Hospitals, Medical Care, vol.46, issue.11, pp.1149-1156, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31817925c1

L. Leape and D. Berwick, Five Years After To Err Is Human, JAMA, vol.293, issue.19, pp.2384-2390, 2005.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.293.19.2384

S. Harbarth, D. Pittet, L. Grady, A. Zawacki, G. Potter-bynoe et al., Interventional study to evaluate the impact of an alcohol-based hand gel in improving hand hygiene compliance, The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, vol.21, issue.6, pp.489-495, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00006454-200206000-00002

T. Haustein, P. Gastmeier, A. Holmes, J. Lucet, R. Shannon et al., Use of benchmarking and public reporting for infection control in four high-income countries, The Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol.11, issue.6, pp.471-481, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70315-7

P. Gastmeier, F. Schwab, D. Sohr, M. Behnke, and C. Geffers, Conclusions., Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, vol.18, issue.10, pp.993-999, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhin.2006.12.020

L. Beydon, P. Ledenmat, C. Soltner, F. Lebreton, V. Hardin et al., Adverse Events with Medical Devices in Anesthesia and Intensive Care Unit Patients Recorded in the French Safety Database in 2005???2006, Anesthesiology, vol.112, issue.2, pp.364-372, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181ca2e55

S. Bolsin, R. Solly, and A. Patrick, The value of personal professional monitoring performance data and open disclosure policies in anaesthetic practice: a case report, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.12, issue.4, pp.295-297, 2003.
DOI : 10.1136/qhc.12.4.295

S. Staender, Incident reporting in anaesthesiology, Best Practice & Research Clinical Anaesthesiology, vol.25, issue.2, pp.207-214, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.bpa.2011.01.005

R. Maaloe, M. La-cour, A. Hansen, E. Hansen, M. Hansen et al., Scrutinizing incident reporting in anaesthesia: why is an incident perceived as critical?, Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, vol.24, issue.3, pp.1005-1013, 2006.
DOI : 10.2486/indhealth.43.20

F. Khan and S. Khimani, Customer focused incident monitoring in anaesthesia, Anaesthesia, vol.31, issue.6, pp.586-590, 2007.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2044.2007.05070.x

J. Mellin-olsen, O. Sullivan, E. Balogh, D. Drobnik, L. Knape et al., Guidelines for safety and quality in anaesthesia practice in the European Union, European Journal of Anaesthesiology, vol.24, issue.6, pp.479-482, 2007.
DOI : 10.1017/S0265021507000324

G. Hayward, A. Parnes, and S. Simon, Using health information technology to improve drug monitoring: a systematic review, Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety, vol.163, issue.9, pp.1232-1237, 2009.
DOI : 10.1002/pds.1831

K. Cresswell and A. Sheikh, Information technology???based approaches to reducing repeat drug exposure in patients with known drug allergies, Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, vol.121, issue.5, pp.1112-1117, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jaci.2007.12.1180

P. Coloma, M. Schuemie, G. Trifiro, R. Gini, R. Herings et al., Combining electronic healthcare databases in Europe to allow for large-scale drug safety monitoring: the EU-ADR Project, Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety, vol.3, issue.12, pp.1-11, 2011.
DOI : 10.1002/pds.2053

P. Morel and P. Herve, Surveillance of blood transfusion safety: Contribution of the hemovigilance strategy in France, Transfusion Medicine Reviews, vol.12, issue.2, pp.109-127, 1998.
DOI : 10.1016/S0887-7963(98)80033-3

R. De-vries, J. Faber, and P. Strengers, Haemovigilance: an effective tool for improving transfusion practice, Vox Sanguinis, vol.99, issue.Suppl. 1, pp.60-67, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2010.01442.x

N. Paneth, Assessing the Contributions of John Snow to Epidemiology, Epidemiology, vol.15, issue.5, pp.514-516, 2004.
DOI : 10.1097/01.ede.0000135915.94799.00

J. Eyler, Constructing vital statistics, Soz Praventivmed, vol.47, pp.1835-1845, 2002.

B. Allegranzi and D. Pittet, Role of hand hygiene in healthcare-associated infection prevention, Journal of Hospital Infection, vol.73, issue.4, pp.305-315, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jhin.2009.04.019

M. Best and D. Neuhauser, Ignaz Semmelweis and the birth of infection control, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.13, issue.3, pp.233-234, 2004.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2004.010918

T. Noakes, J. Borresen, T. Hew-butler, M. Lambert, and E. Jordaan, Semmelweis and the aetiology of puerperal sepsis 160 years on: an historical review, Epidemiology and Infection, vol.42, issue.01, pp.1-9, 2007.
DOI : 10.1007/BF01890836

J. Persson, Semmelweis???s methodology from the modern stand-point: intervention studies and causal ontology, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, vol.40, issue.3, pp.204-209, 2009.
DOI : 10.1016/j.shpsc.2009.06.003

A. Feinstein and R. Horwitz, Problems in the ???Evidence??? of ???Evidence-Based Medicine???, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.103, issue.6, pp.529-535, 1997.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9343(97)00244-1

D. Pittet, S. Hugonnet, S. Harbarth, P. Mourouga, V. Sauvan et al., Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene, The Lancet, vol.356, issue.9238, pp.1307-1312, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02814-2

A. Donabedian, Evaluating the quality of medical care. The Millbank Memorial Fund, Quarterly, vol.44, pp.166-203, 1966.

L. Iezzoni, 100 Apples Divided by 15 Red Herrings: A Cautionary Tale from the Mid-19th Century on Comparing Hospital Mortality Rates, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.124, issue.12, pp.1079-1085, 1996.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-124-12-199606150-00009

D. Spiegelhalter, Handling over-dispersion of performance indicators, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.14, issue.5, pp.347-351, 2005.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2005.013755

D. Spiegelhalter, Funnel plots for comparing institutional performance, Statistics in Medicine, vol.12, issue.8, pp.1185-1202, 2005.
DOI : 10.1002/sim.1970

M. Mohammed, J. Deeks, and A. Girling, Evidence of methodological bias in hospital standardised mortality ratios: retrospective database study of English hospitals, BMJ, vol.338, issue.mar18 2, p.780, 2009.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.b780

D. Shahian, R. Wolf, L. Iezzoni, L. , and N. Slt, Variability in the Measurement of Hospital-wide Mortality Rates, New England Journal of Medicine, vol.363, issue.26, pp.2530-2539, 2010.
DOI : 10.1056/NEJMsa1006396

F. Nightingale, Notes on hospital

K. Wiliams and . Reappraising-florence-nightingale, Reappraising Florence Nightingale, BMJ, vol.337, issue.dec16 1, p.2889, 2008.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.a2889

L. Mcdonald, Florence Nightingale and the early origins of evidence-based nursing, Evidence-Based Nursing, vol.4, issue.3, pp.68-69, 2001.
DOI : 10.1136/ebn.4.3.68

R. Lilford, M. Mohammed, D. Spiegelhalter, and R. Thomson, Use and misuse of process and outcome data in managing performance of acute medical care: avoiding institutional stigma, Utah and Colorado, pp.1147-1154261, 2000.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15901-1

R. Wilson, W. Runciman, and R. Gibberd, The quality in Australian health care study, Med J Aust, vol.163, pp.458-71, 1995.

P. Davis, R. Lay-yee, and R. Brian, Adverse events in New Zealand public hospitals: principal finding from a national survey, Occasional paper, issue.3, 2001.

C. Vincent, G. Neale, and M. Woloshynowych, Adverse events in British hospitals: preliminary retrospective record review, BMJ, vol.322, issue.7285, pp.517-526, 2001.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.322.7285.517

T. Schioler, H. Lipczak, and B. Pedersen, Incidence of adverse events in hospitals. A retrospective study of medical records, Ugeskr Laeger, vol.163, pp.5370-5378, 2001.

G. Baker, P. Norton, V. Flintoft, R. Blais, A. Brown et al., The Canadian Adverse Events Study: the incidence of adverse events among hospital patients in Canada, Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol.170, issue.11, pp.1678-86, 2004.
DOI : 10.1503/cmaj.1040498

M. Soop, U. Fryksmark, M. Höster, and B. Haglund, The incidence of adverse events in Swedish hospitals: a retrospective medical record review study, International Journal for Quality in Health Care, vol.21, issue.4, pp.285-291, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/intqhc/mzp025

M. Zegers, M. De-bruijne, C. Wagner, L. Hoonhout, R. Waaijman et al., Adverse events and potentially preventable deaths in Dutch hospitals: results of a retrospective patient record review study, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.18, issue.4, pp.297-302, 2009.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2007.025924

P. Michel, Étude nationale sur les événements indésirables liés aux soins observés dans les établissements de santé (Eneis) Direction de la Recherche des Etudes, de l'Evaluation et des Statistiques. Études et résultats, 2005.

P. Michel, Les événements indésirables graves associés aux soins observés dans les établissements de santé: résultats des enquêtes nationales menées en, Direction de la Recherche des Etudes, de l'Evaluation et des Statistiques. Dossiers Solidarité et Santé, 2004.

J. Aranaz-andrés, C. Aibar-remon, J. Vitaller-murillo, P. Ruiz-lopez, R. Limon-ramirez et al., Incidence of adverse events related to health care in Spain: results of the Spanish National Study of Adverse Events, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, vol.62, issue.12, pp.1022-1029, 2008.
DOI : 10.1136/jech.2007.065227

D. Vries, E. Ramrattan, M. Smorenburg, S. Gouma, D. Boermeester et al., The incidence and nature of in-hospital adverse events: a systematic review, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.17, issue.3, pp.216-239, 2008.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2007.023622

D. Thomas, D. Struddert, and W. Runciman, A comparison of iatrogenic injury studies in Australia and the USA I: context, methods, casemix, population, patient and hospital characteristics, International Journal for Quality in Health Care, vol.12, issue.5, pp.371-378199, 2000.
DOI : 10.1093/intqhc/12.5.371

O. Neil, A. Petersen, L. Cook, F. Bates, D. Lee et al., Physician Reporting Compared with Medical-Record Review to Identify Adverse Medical Events, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.119, issue.5, pp.370-376, 1993.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-119-5-199309010-00004

T. Brennan, A. Localio, and N. Laird, Reliability and Validity of Judgments Concerning Adverse Events Suffered by Hospitalized Patients, Medical Care, vol.27, issue.12, pp.1148-1158, 1989.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-198912000-00006

T. Panniers and J. Newlander, The Adverse Patient Occurrences Inventory: Validity, Reliability, and Implications, QRB - Quality Review Bulletin, vol.12, issue.9, pp.311-315, 1986.
DOI : 10.1016/S0097-5990(16)30066-5

O. Piller, Décès imputables à une erreur médicale en milieu hospitalier, Bulletin des médecins suisses, vol.82, p.436, 2001.

P. Michel, J. Quenon, D. Sarasqueta, A. Scemama, and O. , Comparison of three methods for estimating rates of adverse events and rates of preventable adverse events in acute care hospitals, BMJ, vol.328, issue.7433, pp.199-202, 2004.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.328.7433.199

C. Wilbur, The Second Decennial Revision of the International Classification of Causes of Death, Am J Public Hygiene, vol.20, pp.535-538, 1910.

R. Israel, The International Classification of Disease. Two hundred years of development, Public Health Rep, vol.93, pp.150-152, 1978.

W. Fales and I. Moriyama, International Adoption of Principles of Morbidity and Mortality Classification, American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, vol.39, issue.1, pp.31-36, 1949.
DOI : 10.2105/AJPH.39.1.31

C. Erhardt and L. Weiner, Changes in Mortality Statistics Through the Use of the New International Statistical Classification, American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health, vol.40, issue.1, pp.6-16, 1950.
DOI : 10.2105/AJPH.40.1.6

J. Marshall, The Sixth Revision of the International Lists of Diseases and Causes of Death, The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, vol.27, issue.3, pp.289-298, 1949.
DOI : 10.2307/3348071

R. Fetter, Y. Shin, J. Freeman, R. Thompson, and J. , Case mix definition by Diagnosis- Related Groups, Med Care, vol.18, p.53, 1980.

J. Freeman, R. Fetter, H. Park, K. Schneider, J. Lichtenstein et al., Diagnosis-Related Group Refinement with Diagnosis- and Procedure-Specific Comorbidities and Complications, Medical Care, vol.33, issue.8, pp.806-827, 1995.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-199508000-00006

K. Kahn, L. Rubenstein, D. Draper, J. Kosecoff, W. Rogers et al., The effects of the DRG-based prospective payment system on quality of care for hospitalized Medicare patients. An introduction to the series, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1953-1955, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.264.15.1953

D. Draper, K. Kahn, E. Reinisch, M. Sherwood, M. Carney et al., Studying the effects of the DRG-based prospective payment system on quality of care. Design, sampling, and fieldwork, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1956-1961, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.264.15.1956

E. Keeler, K. Kahn, D. Draper, M. Sherwood, L. Rubenstein et al., Changes in Sickness at Admission Following the Introduction of the Prospective Payment System, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1962-1968, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.1990.03450150062032

K. Kahn, W. Rogers, L. Rubenstein, M. Sherwood, E. Reinisch et al., Measuring Quality of Care With Explicit Process Criteria Before and After Implementation of the DRG-Based Prospective Payment System, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1969-1973, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.1990.03450150069033

L. Rubenstein, K. Kahn, E. Reinisch, M. Sherwood, W. Rogers et al., Changes in Quality of Care for Five Diseases Measured by Implicit Review, 1981 to 1986, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1974-1979, 1981.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.1990.03450150074034

J. Kosecoff, K. Kahn, W. Rogers, E. Reinisch, M. Sherwood et al., Prospective payment system and impairment at discharge. The 'quicker-and-sicker' story revisited, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1980-1983, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.264.15.1980

K. Kahn, E. Keeler, M. Sherwood, W. Rogers, D. Draper et al., Comparing Outcomes of Care Before and After Implementation of the DRG-Based Prospective Payment System, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1984-1988, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.1990.03450150084036

W. Rogers, D. Draper, K. Kahn, E. Keeler, L. Rubenstein et al., Quality of care before and after implementation of the DRG-based prospective payment system. A summary of effects, JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.264, issue.15, pp.1989-1994, 1990.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.264.15.1989

K. Mcdonald, P. Romano, J. Geppert, S. Davies, B. Duncan et al., Measures of Patient Safety Based on Hospital Administrative Data -The Patient Safety Indicators Technical Review 5 (Prepared by the University of California San FranciscoBStanford Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-97-0013) AHRQ Publication No. 02-0038 Agency for Healthcare Research and Qualitypdf the patient safety indicators: How well do they perform on Veterans Health Administration data?, Medical Care, vol.43, pp.873-884, 2002.

A. Rosen, S. Zhao, P. Rivard, S. Loveland, M. Montez-rath et al., Tracking Rates of Patient Safety Indicators Over Time, Medical Care, vol.44, issue.9, pp.850-861, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.mlr.0000220686.82472.9c

H. Agency, . Research, and . Quality, Patient Safety Indicators : Technical Specifications, Feb, 2006.

H. Agency, . Research, and . Quality, Guide to Patient Safety Indicators, Feb, 2006.

T. Vogel, V. Dombrovskiy, J. Carson, A. Graham, and S. Lowry, Postoperative Sepsis in the United States, Annals of Surgery, vol.252, issue.6, pp.1065-1071, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181dcf36e

S. Vartak, M. Ward, and T. Vaughn, Do Postoperative Complications Vary by Hospital Teaching Status?, Medical Care, vol.46, issue.1, pp.25-32, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181484927

J. Clement, R. Lindrooth, A. Chukmaitov, and H. Chen, Does the Patient??s Payer Matter in Hospital Patient Safety?, Medical Care, vol.45, issue.2, pp.131-138, 2007.
DOI : 10.1097/01.mlr.0000244636.54588.2b

D. Gaskin, C. Spencer, P. Richard, G. Anderson, N. Powe et al., Do Hospitals Provide Lower-Quality Care To Minorities Than To Whites?, Health Affairs, vol.27, issue.2, pp.518-527, 2008.
DOI : 10.1377/hlthaff.27.2.518

K. Fiscella, P. Franks, S. Meldrum, and S. Barnett, Racial Disparity in Surgical Complications in New York State, Annals of Surgery, vol.242, issue.2, pp.151-155, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/01.sla.0000171031.08435.b9

R. Coffey, R. Andrews, and E. Moy, Racial, Ethnic, and Socioeconomic Disparities in Estimates of AHRQ Patient Safety Indicators, Medical Care, vol.43, issue.Supplement, pp.48-57, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/00005650-200503001-00008

S. Shimada, M. Montez-rath, S. Loveland, S. Zhao, N. Kressin et al., Racial Disparities in Patient Safety Indicator (PSI) Rates in the Veterans Health Administration Advances in Patient Safety: New Directions and Alternative Approaches: Assessment) Rockville MD, 2008.

D. Thornlow and E. Merwin, Managing to improve quality, Health Care Management Review, vol.34, issue.3, pp.262-272, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/HMR.0b013e3181a16bce

S. Vartak, M. Ward, and T. Vaughn, Patient Safety Outcomes in Small Urban and Small Rural Hospitals, The Journal of Rural Health, vol.25, issue.1, pp.58-66, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-0361.2009.00266.x

W. Weeks, A. West, A. Rosen, and J. Bagian, Comparing measures of patient safety for inpatient care provided to veterans within and outside the VA system in New York, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.17, issue.1, pp.58-64, 2008.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2006.020735

P. Rivard, C. Christiansen, S. Zhao, A. Elixhauser, and A. Rosen, Is There an Association Between Patient Safety Indicators and Hospital Teaching Status? Advances in Patient Safety: New Directions and Alternative Approaches Culture and Redesign) Rockville MD, 2008.

P. Li, J. Schneider, and M. Ward, Effect of Critical Access Hospital Conversion on Patient Safety, Health Services Research, vol.12, issue.2, pp.2089-2108, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/S0167-6296(02)00124-8

S. Loux, S. Payne, and A. Knott, Comparing Patient Safety in Rural Hospitals by Bed Count Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation Rockville MD, 2005.

A. Rosen, D. Gaba, M. Meterko, P. Shokeen, S. Singer et al., Recruitment of hospitals for a safety climate study: facilitators and barriers. Joint Commission journal on quality and patient safety, Joint Commission Resources, vol.34, pp.275-284, 2008.

A. Rosen, S. Singer, Z. Shibei, P. Shokeen, M. Meterko et al., Hospital Safety Climate and Safety Outcomes: Is There a Relationship in the VA?, Medical Care Research and Review, vol.67, issue.5, pp.590-608, 2010.
DOI : 10.1177/1077558709356703

S. Singer, S. Lin, A. Falwell, D. Gaba, and L. Baker, Relationship of Safety Climate and Safety Performance in Hospitals, Health Services Research, vol.65, issue.(1), pp.399-421, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00918.x

S. Weingart, K. Farbstein, R. Davis, and R. Phillips, Using a Multihospital Survey to Examine the Safety Culture, The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Safety, vol.30, issue.3, pp.125-132, 2004.
DOI : 10.1016/S1549-3741(04)30014-6

J. Williams, Accidents, claiming, and regional subcultures: Are medical errors and malpractice lawsuits related to social capital?, Journal of Safety Research, vol.39, issue.3, pp.287-294, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jsr.2008.01.001

T. Isaac, A. Zaslavsky, P. Cleary, and B. Landon, The Relationship between Patients' Perception of Care and Measures of Hospital Quality and Safety, Health Services Research, vol.12, issue.(s, pp.1024-1040, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2010.01122.x

B. Poulose, W. Ray, P. Arbogast, J. Needleman, P. Buerhaus et al., Resident Work Hour Limits and Patient Safety, Annals of Surgery, vol.241, issue.6, pp.847-56, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/01.sla.0000164075.18748.38

URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1357165

A. Rosen, S. Loveland, P. Romano, K. Itani, J. Silber et al., Effects of Resident Duty Hour Reform on Surgical and Procedural Patient Safety Indicators Among Hospitalized Veterans Health Administration and Medicare Patients, Medical Care, vol.47, issue.7, pp.723-731, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31819a588f

E. Bendavid, Y. Kaganova, J. Needleman, L. Gruenberg, and J. Weissman, Complication Rates on Weekends and Weekdays in US Hospitals, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.120, issue.5, pp.422-428, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.05.067

N. Menachemi, C. Saunders, A. Chukmaitov, M. Matthews, and R. Brooks, Hospital adoption of information technologies and improved patient safety: a study of 98 hospitals in Florida, Journal of healthcare management American College of Healthcare Executives, vol.52, issue.410, pp.398-409, 2007.

S. Culler, J. Hawley, V. Naylor, and K. Rask, Is the availability of hospital IT applications associated with a hospital's risk adjusted incidence rate for patient safety indicators: Results from 66 Georgia hospitals system with improved patient safety, reduced complications and shorter length of stay among Medicare beneficiaries in acute care hospitals in the United States, Journal of Medical Systems International Journal of Medical Informatics, vol.3177, pp.319-327745, 2007.

D. Bernard and W. Encinosa, Financial and Demographic Influences on Medicare Patient Safety Events Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation Rockville MD, 2005.

D. Thornlow and G. Stukenborg, The Association Between Hospital Characteristics and Rates of Preventable Complications and Adverse Events, Medical Care, vol.44, issue.3, pp.265-269, 2006.
DOI : 10.1097/01.mlr.0000199668.42261.a3

P. Rivard, A. Elixhauser, C. Christiansen, Z. Shibei, and A. Rosen, Testing the Association Between Patient Safety Indicators and Hospital Structural Characteristics in VA and Nonfederal Hospitals, Medical Care Research and Review, vol.67, issue.3, pp.321-341, 2010.
DOI : 10.1177/1077558709347378

R. Mardon, K. Khanna, J. Sorra, N. Dyer, and T. Famolaro, Exploring Relationships Between Hospital Patient Safety Culture and Adverse Events, Journal of Patient Safety, vol.6, issue.4, pp.226-258, 2010.
DOI : 10.1097/PTS.0b013e3181fd1a00

F. Yu, N. Menachemi, and T. Houston, Hospital Patient Safety Levels among Healthcare??s ???Most Wired??? Institutions, Journal For Healthcare Quality, vol.32, issue.2, pp.16-23, 2010.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1945-1474.2009.00069.x

C. Zhan and M. Miller, Excess Length of Stay, Charges, and Mortality Attributable to Medical Injuries During Hospitalization, JAMA, vol.290, issue.14, pp.1868-1874, 2003.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.290.14.1868

P. Rivard, S. Luther, C. Christiansen, Z. Shibei, S. Loveland et al., Using Patient Safety Indicators to Estimate the Impact of Potential Adverse Events on Outcomes, Medical Care Research and Review, vol.65, issue.1, pp.67-87, 2008.
DOI : 10.1177/1077558707309611

W. Encinosa and F. Hellinger, The Impact of Medical Errors on Ninety-Day Costs and Outcomes: An Examination of Surgical Patients, Health Services Research, vol.290, issue.(14), pp.2067-2085, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00882.x

B. Gallagher, L. Cen, and E. Hannan, Readmissions for Selected Infections Due to Medical Care: Expanding the Definition of a Patient Safety Indicator Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation Concepts and Methodology) Rockville MD, 2005.

H. Kaafarani, A. Borzecki, K. Itani, S. Loveland, H. Mull et al., Validity of Selected Patient Safety Indicators: Opportunities and Concerns, J Am Coll Surg, 2010.

P. Romano, H. Mull, P. Rivard, S. Zhao, W. Henderson et al., Validity of Selected AHRQ Patient Safety Indicators Based on VA National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Data, Health Services Research, vol.290, issue.(14), pp.182-204, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00905.x

R. White, B. Sadeghi, D. Tancredi, P. Zrelak, J. Cuny et al., How Valid is the ICD-9-CM Based AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator for Postoperative Venous Thromboembolism?, Medical Care, vol.47, issue.12, pp.1237-1243, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181b58940

K. Henderson, A. Recktenwald, R. Reichley, T. Bailey, B. Waterman et al., Clinical validation of the AHRQ postoperative venous thromboembolism patient safety indicator. Joint Commission journal on quality and patient safety, Joint Commission Resources, vol.35, pp.370-376, 2009.

C. Zhan, J. Battles, Y. Chiang, and D. Hunt, The Validity of ICD-9-CM Codes in Identifying Postoperative Deep Vein Thrombosis and Pulmonary Embolism, The Joint Commission Journal on Quality and Patient Safety, vol.33, issue.6, pp.326-357, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/S1553-7250(07)33037-7

G. Utter, P. Zrelak, R. Baron, D. Tancredi, B. Sadeghi et al., Positive Predictive Value of the AHRQ Accidental Puncture or Laceration Patient Safety Indicator, Annals of Surgery, vol.250, issue.6, pp.1041-1045, 2009.
DOI : 10.1097/SLA.0b013e3181afe095

B. Gallagher, L. Cen, and E. Hannan, Validation of AHRQ's Patient Safety Indicator for Accidental Puncture or LacerationAdvances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation Concepts and Methodology) Rockville MD, 2005.

B. Sadeghi, R. Baron, P. Zrelak, G. Utter, J. Geppert et al., Cases of Iatrogenic Pneumothorax Can Be Identified From ICD-9-CM Coded Data, American Journal of Medical Quality, vol.25, issue.3, pp.218-242, 2010.
DOI : 10.1177/1062860609359534

G. Utter, J. Cuny, P. Sama, M. Silver, P. Zrelak et al., Detection of Postoperative Respiratory Failure: How Predictive Is the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's Patient Safety Indicator?, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.211, issue.3, pp.347-354, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.04.022

M. Cevasco, A. Borzecki, D. Mcclusky, Q. Chen, M. Shin et al., Positive Predictive Value of the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator ???Postoperative Wound Dehiscence???, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.962-969, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.01.053

M. Cevasco, A. Borzecki, Q. Chen, P. Zrelak, M. Shin et al., Positive Predictive Value of the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator ???Postoperative Sepsis???: Implications for Practice and Policy, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.954-61, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.11.013

M. Cevasco, A. Borzecki, O. Brien, W. Chen, Q. Shin et al., Validity of the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator ???Central Venous Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections???, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.984-90, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.02.005

Q. Chen, A. Rosen, M. Cevasco, M. Shin, K. Itani et al., Detecting Patient Safety Indicators: How Valid Is ???Foreign Body Left During Procedure??? in the Veterans Health Administration?, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.977-83, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.02.003

P. Zrelak, B. Sadeghi, G. Utter, R. Baron, D. Tancredi et al., Positive Predictive Value of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Patient Safety Indicator for Central Line???Related Bloodstream Infection (???Selected Infections Due to Medical Care???), Journal For Healthcare Quality, vol.33, issue.2, pp.29-36, 2011.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1945-1474.2010.00114.x

A. Borzecki, M. Cevasco, Q. Chen, M. Shin, K. Itani et al., How Valid is the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator ???Postoperative Physiologic and Metabolic Derangement????, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.968-976, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2011.01.001

A. Borzecki, H. Kaafarani, M. Cevasco, K. Hickson, S. Macdonald et al., How Valid is the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator ???Postoperative Hemorrhage or Hematoma????, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.946-953, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.09.033

A. Borzecki, H. Kaafarani, G. Utter, P. Romano, M. Shin et al., How Valid is the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicator ???Postoperative Respiratory Failure????, Journal of the American College of Surgeons, vol.212, issue.6, pp.935-945, 2011.
DOI : 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.09.034

P. Stone, T. Horan, H. Shih, C. Mooney-kane, and E. Larson, Comparisons of health care???associated infections identification using two mechanisms for public reporting, American Journal of Infection Control, vol.35, issue.3, pp.145-149, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ajic.2006.11.001

J. Naessens, C. Campbell, B. Berg, A. Williams, and R. Culbertson, Impact of Diagnosis-Timing Indicators on Measures of Safety, Comorbidity, and Case Mix Groupings From Administrative Data Sources, Medical Care, vol.45, issue.8, pp.781-788, 2007.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e3180618b7f

V. Bahl, M. Thompson, T. Kau, H. Hu, D. Campbell et al., Do the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicators Flag Conditions That Are Present at the Time of Hospital Admission?, Medical Care, vol.46, issue.5, pp.516-522, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31815f537f

R. Houchens, A. Elixhauser, and P. Romano, How often are potential patient safety events present on admission? Joint Commission journal on quality and patient safety, Joint Commission Resources, vol.34, pp.154-163, 2008.

L. Glance, Y. Li, T. Osler, D. Mukamel, and A. Dick, Impact of date stamping on patient safety measurement in patients undergoing CABG: Experience with the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicators, BMC Health Services Research, vol.296, issue.3, 2008.
DOI : 10.1001/jama.296.22.2694

H. Kim, E. Capezuti, C. Kovner, Z. Zhao, and K. Boockvar, Prevalence and Predictors of Adverse Events in Older Surgical Patients: Impact of the Present on Admission Indicator, The Gerontologist, vol.50, issue.6, pp.810-820, 2010.
DOI : 10.1093/geront/gnq045

T. Isaac and A. Jha, Are Patient Safety Indicators Related to Widely Used Measures of Hospital Quality?, Journal of General Internal Medicine, vol.353, issue.3, pp.1373-1378, 2008.
DOI : 10.1007/s11606-008-0665-2

T. Vogel, V. Dombrovskiy, and S. Lowry, Trends in Postoperative Sepsis: Are We Improving Outcomes?, Surgical Infections, vol.10, issue.1, pp.71-78, 2009.
DOI : 10.1089/sur.2008.046

H. Yu, M. Greenberg, A. Haviland, and D. Farley, "Canary Measures" Among the AHRQ Patient Safety Indicators, American Journal of Medical Quality, vol.24, issue.6, pp.465-473, 2009.
DOI : 10.1177/1062860609341585

L. Roberts, J. Ely, and M. Ward, Factors Contributing to Maternal Birth-Related Trauma, American Journal of Medical Quality, vol.22, issue.5, pp.334-343, 2007.
DOI : 10.1177/1062860607303315

E. Chapin, M. Zhan, V. Hsu, S. Seliger, L. Walker et al., Adverse Safety Events in Chronic Kidney Disease: The Frequency of "Multiple Hits", Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol.5, issue.1, pp.95-101, 2010.
DOI : 10.2215/CJN.06210909

A. West, W. Weeks, and J. Bagian, Rare Adverse Medical Events in VA Inpatient Care: Reliability Limits to Using Patient Safety Indicators as Performance Measures, Health Services Research, vol.290, issue.(1, pp.1-1249, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00760.x

P. Rivard, A. Elwy, S. Loveland, S. Zhao, D. Tsilimingras et al., Applying Patient Safety Indicators (PSIs) Across Health Care Systems: Achieving Data Comparability Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation Rockville MD, 2005.

R. Cotayo, H. Grems, and E. Sloan, Measuring Safety: A New Perspective on Outcomes of a Long-term Intensive Case Management Program Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation Rockville MD, 2005.

R. Mutter, M. Rosko, and H. Wong, Measuring Hospital Inefficiency: The Effects of Controlling for Quality and Patient Burden of Illness, Health Services Research, vol.13, issue.(1), pp.1992-2013, 2008.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2008.00892.x

K. Rothman and S. Greenland, Modern Epidemiology, 1998.

J. L. Kelsey, A. S. Whittemore, A. S. Evans, and W. Thomson, Methods in observational epidemiology, 1996.

D. Streiner and G. Norman, Health measurement scales : a practical guide to their development and use, 2008.

M. Pringle, T. Wilson, and R. Grol, Measuring "goodness" in individuals and healthcare systems, BMJ, vol.325, issue.7366, pp.704-707, 2002.
DOI : 10.1136/bmj.325.7366.704

J. Januel, A. Duclos, A. Bestion, S. Couray-targe, N. Amamra et al., Développement d'indicateurs de la sécurité des soins (PSI) à partir de bases de données medico-administratives hospitalières ? Rapport final Direction de la recherche, des études, de l'évaluation et des statistiques (DRESS), Ministère du travail, de l'emploi et de la santé

S. Arnault, A. Fizzala, I. Leroux, and P. Lombard, L'activité des établissements de santé en 2005 en hospitalisation complète et partielle, Drees Etudes et Résultats, p.546, 2006.

S. Arnault, A. Fizzala, I. Leroux, and P. Lombard, L'activité des établissements de santé en 2006 en hospitalisation complète et partielle. Drees Etudes et Résultats, n°618, Drees, décembre, 2007.

M. Mertens, . Van-den, J. Berg, J. Fabry, and O. Jepsen, HELICS: a European project to standardise the surveillance of hospital acquired infection, Euro Surveill, vol.1, pp.28-30, 1994.

S. Drösler, N. Klazinga, P. Romano, D. Tancredi, G. Aoiz et al., Application of patient safety indicators internationally: a pilot study among seven countries, International Journal for Quality in Health Care, vol.21, issue.4, pp.272-278, 2009.
DOI : 10.1093/intqhc/mzp018

S. Drösler, P. Romano, D. Tancredi, and N. Klazinga, International Comparability of Patient Safety Indicators in 15 OECD Member Countries: A Methodological Approach of Adjustment by Secondary Diagnoses, Health Services Research, vol.47, issue.(12)
DOI : 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2011.01290.x

L. Noyez, Control charts, Cusum techniques and funnel plots. A review of methods for monitoring performance in healthcare, Interactive CardioVascular and Thoracic Surgery, vol.9, issue.3, pp.494-499, 2009.
DOI : 10.1510/icvts.2009.204768

D. Biau, M. Resche-rigon, G. Godiris-petit, R. Nizard, and R. Porcher, Quality control of surgical and interventional procedures: a review of the CUSUM, Quality and Safety in Health Care, vol.16, issue.3, pp.203-207, 2007.
DOI : 10.1136/qshc.2006.020776

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00155208

D. Biau, S. Williams, M. Schlup, R. Nizard, and R. Porcher, Quantitative and individualized assessment of the learning curve using LC-CUSUM, British Journal of Surgery, vol.271, issue.7, pp.925-929, 2008.
DOI : 10.1002/bjs.6056

R. German, Sensitivity and Predictive Value Positive Measurements for Public Health Surveillance Systems, Epidemiology, vol.11, issue.6, pp.720-727, 2000.
DOI : 10.1097/00001648-200011000-00020

P. Stein, P. Woodard, J. Weg, T. Wakefield, V. Tapson et al., Diagnostic Pathways in Acute Pulmonary Embolism: Recommendations of The PIOPED II Investigators, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.119, issue.12, pp.1048-1055, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.05.060

J. Dalen, New PIOPED Recommendations for the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.119, issue.12, pp.1001-1002, 2006.
DOI : 10.1016/j.amjmed.2006.06.034

P. Wells, Pulmonary Embolism: A Clinician's Perspective, Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, vol.38, issue.6, pp.404-411, 2008.
DOI : 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2008.06.004

P. Stein and R. Hull, Multidetector computed tomography for the diagnosis of acute pulmonary embolism, Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine, vol.13, issue.5, pp.384-388, 2007.
DOI : 10.1097/MCP.0b013e32821acdbe

C. Kearon, The Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism, Pathophysiology of Haemostasis and Thrombosis, vol.25, issue.1-2, pp.183-194, 2003.
DOI : 10.1159/000217145

M. Eisner, Before diagnostic testing for pulmonary embolism: estimating the prior probability of disease, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.114, issue.3, pp.232-234, 2003.
DOI : 10.1016/S0002-9343(03)00008-1

L. Freeman, E. Stein, S. Sprayregen, M. Chamarthy, and L. Haramati, The Current and Continuing Important Role of Ventilation-Perfusion Scintigraphy in Evaluating Patients With Suspected Pulmonary Embolism, Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, vol.38, issue.6, pp.432-440, 2008.
DOI : 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2008.07.001

M. Miniati, H. Sostman, A. Gottschalk, S. Monti, and M. Pistolesi, Perfusion Lung Scintigraphy for the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism: A Reappraisal and Review of the Prospective Investigative Study of Acute Pulmonary Embolism Diagnosis Methods, Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, vol.38, issue.6, pp.450-461, 2008.
DOI : 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2008.06.001

P. Stein, H. Sostman, J. Dalen, D. Bailey, M. Balc et al., Controversies in Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism, Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis, vol.28, issue.3, pp.140-149, 2011.
DOI : 10.1177/1076029610389027

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00931881

G. Lucignani and M. Pistolesi, Diagnosing pulmonary embolism: clinical problem or methodological issue?, European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, vol.49, issue.11, pp.522-528, 2009.
DOI : 10.1007/s00259-008-1059-8

P. Stein, F. Matta, M. Musani, and B. Diaczok, Silent Pulmonary Embolism in Patients with Deep Venous Thrombosis: A Systematic Review, The American Journal of Medicine, vol.123, issue.5, pp.426-431, 2010.
DOI : 10.1016/j.amjmed.2009.09.037

D. Anderson and D. Barnes, The Use of Leg Venous Ultrasonography for the Diagnosis of Pulmonary Embolism, Seminars in Nuclear Medicine, vol.38, issue.6, pp.412-417, 2008.
DOI : 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2008.07.003

M. Tan, C. Van-rooden, R. Westerbeek, and M. Huisman, Diagnostic management of clinically suspected acute deep vein thrombosis, British Journal of Haematology, vol.6, issue.4, pp.347-360, 2009.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.07732.x

M. Righini and H. Bounameaux, Clinical relevance of distal deep vein thrombosis, Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine, vol.14, issue.5, pp.408-413, 2008.
DOI : 10.1097/MCP.0b013e32830460ea

URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00689159

H. Decousus, I. Queer, E. Presles, F. Becker, M. Barrellier et al., Superficial Venous Thrombosis and Venous Thromboembolism, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol.152, issue.4, pp.218-224, 2010.
DOI : 10.7326/0003-4819-152-4-201002160-00006

O. Grady, N. , A. M. Dellinger, and E. , Guidelines for the prevention of intravascular catheter-related infections, MMWR Recomm Rep, vol.51, pp.1-29, 2002.

I. Raad, H. Hanna, and D. Maki, Intravascular catheter-related infections: advances in diagnosis, prevention, and management, The Lancet Infectious Diseases, vol.7, issue.10, pp.645-657, 2007.
DOI : 10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70235-9

T. Calandra and J. Cohen, The International Sepsis Forum Consensus Conference on Definitions of Infection in the Intensive Care Unit, Critical Care Medicine, vol.33, issue.7, pp.1538-1548, 2005.
DOI : 10.1097/01.CCM.0000168253.91200.83

C. Bellini, C. Petignat, P. Francioli, A. Wenger, J. Bille et al., Conclusion., Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, vol.51, issue.09, pp.1030-1035, 2007.
DOI : 10.3201/eid0803.010098

M. Levy, M. Fink, J. Marshall, E. Abraham, D. Angus et al., 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference, SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference, pp.530-538, 2001.
DOI : 10.1007/s00134-003-1662-x

J. Gardner, W. Jarvis, T. Emori, T. Horan, and J. Hughes, CDC definitions for nosocomial infections, APIC Infection Control and Applied Epidemiology: Principles and Practice. St. Louis: Mosby, pp.1-20, 1996.

T. Horan, M. Andrus, and M. Dudeck, CDC/NHSN surveillance definition of health care???associated infection and criteria for specific types of infections in the acute care setting, American Journal of Infection Control, vol.36, issue.5, pp.309-332, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.ajic.2008.03.002

K. Larsen and J. Merlo, Appropriate Assessment of Neighborhood Effects on Individual Health: Integrating Random and Fixed Effects in Multilevel Logistic Regression, American Journal of Epidemiology, vol.161, issue.1, pp.81-88, 2005.
DOI : 10.1093/aje/kwi017

K. Larsen, J. Petersen, E. Budtz-jørgensen, and L. Endahl, Interpreting Parameters in the Logistic Regression Model with Random Effects, Biometrics, vol.44, issue.3, pp.909-914, 2000.
DOI : 10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00909.x

M. Mittlböck and H. Heinzl, A simulation study comparing properties of heterogeneity measures in meta-analyses, Statistics in Medicine, vol.351, issue.24, pp.4321-4333, 2006.
DOI : 10.1002/sim.2692

J. Carlet, J. Fabry, R. Amalberti, and L. Degos, The ???Zero Risk??? Concept for Hospital???Acquired Infections: A Risky Business!, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.49, issue.5, pp.747-749, 2009.
DOI : 10.1086/604720

J. Brown, F. Doloresco, and J. Mylotte, ???Never Events???: Not Every Hospital???Acquired Infection Is Preventable, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol.49, issue.5, pp.743-746, 2009.
DOI : 10.1086/604719

URL : http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/49/5/743

A. Long and P. Dixon, Monitoring outcomes in routine practice: defining appropriate measurement criteria, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, vol.32, issue.1, pp.71-78, 1996.
DOI : 10.1111/j.1365-2753.1996.tb00029.x

J. Douketis, J. Eikelboom, D. Quinlan, A. Willan, and M. Crowther, Short-Duration Prophylaxis Against Venous Thromboembolism After Total Hip or Knee Replacement, Archives of Internal Medicine, vol.162, issue.13, pp.1465-1471, 2002.
DOI : 10.1001/archinte.162.13.1465

A. Nicolaides, J. Fareed, and A. Kakkar, Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism. International Consensus Statement (Guidelines according to scientific evidence), Int Angiol, vol.25, pp.101-161, 2006.

R. White and M. Hemdersen, Risk factors for venous thromboembolism after total hip and knee replacement surgery, Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine, vol.8, issue.5, pp.365-371, 2002.
DOI : 10.1097/00063198-200209000-00004

R. White, P. Romano, H. Zhou, R. J. Bargar, and W. , Incidence and Time Course of Thromboembolic Outcomes Following Total Hip or Knee Arthroplasty, Archives of Internal Medicine, vol.158, issue.14, pp.1525-1531, 1998.
DOI : 10.1001/archinte.158.14.1525

K. Xing, G. Morrison, W. Lim, J. Douketis, A. Odueyungbo et al., Has the incidence of deep vein thrombosis in patients undergoing total hip/knee arthroplasty changed over time? A systematic review of randomized controlled trials, Thrombosis Research, vol.123, issue.1, pp.24-34, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/j.thromres.2008.05.005

J. Eikelboom, G. Karthikeyan, N. Fagel, and J. Hirsh, American association of Orthopedic Surgeons and American college of Chest Physicians Guidelines for venous thromboembolism prevention in hip and knee arthroplasty differ. What are the implications for clinicians and patients ? Chest, pp.513-520, 2009.

R. Mcmanus, D. Fitzmaurice, E. Murray, and C. Taylor, Prolonged duration of anticoagulation for calf DVT, Clinical Evidence, 2011.

A. Cohen, V. Tapson, and J. Bergmann, Venous thromboembolism risk and prophylaxis in the acute hospital care setting (ENDORSE study): a multinational cross-sectional study, The Lancet, vol.371, issue.9610, pp.387-394, 2008.
DOI : 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60202-0

N. Institute, C. Health, and . Excellence, Venous thromboembolism -Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism (deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism) in inpatients undergoing surgery, NICE clinical guideline No, vol.46, pp.1-160, 2007.

N. Australia and . Zealand, Working Party on the Management and Prevention of Venous Thromboembolism. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: best practice guidelines for Australia and New Zealand, Health Education and Management Innovations, 2007.

D. Sackett, Clinical epidemiology, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, vol.55, issue.12, pp.1161-1166, 2002.
DOI : 10.1016/S0895-4356(02)00521-8