, Human microbiome Project consortium. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome, Nature, vol.486, pp.207-221, 2012.

G. Clarke, Gut Microbiota: The Neglected Endocrine Organ, Mol. Endocrinol, p.20141108, 2014.

A. M. Moore, C. Munck, M. O. Sommer, and G. Dantas, Functional metagenomic investigations of the human intestinal microbiota, Front. Microbiol, vol.2, p.188, 2011.

J. K. Nicholson, Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions, Science, vol.336, pp.1262-1269, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00726159

H. E. Raybould, Gut chemosensing: interactions between gut endocrine cells and visceral afferents, Auton. Neurosci, vol.153, pp.41-47, 2010.

A. D. Strader and S. C. Woods, Gastrointestinal hormones and food intake, Gastroenterology, vol.128, pp.175-91, 2005.

E. Karra and R. L. Batterham, The role of gut hormones in the regulation of body weight and energy homeostasis, Mol. Cell. Endocrinol, vol.316, pp.120-128, 2010.

C. Sternini, L. Anselmi, and E. Rozengurt, Enteroendocrine cells: a site of 'taste' in gastrointestinal chemosensing, Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes. Obes, vol.15, pp.73-81, 2008.

G. Rindi, A. B. Leiter, A. S. Kopin, C. Bordi, and E. Solcia, The 'Normal' Endocrine Cell of the Gut: Changing Concepts and New Evidences, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci, vol.1014, pp.1-12, 2004.

A. R. Gunawardene, B. M. Corfe, and C. A. Staton, Classification and functions of enteroendocrine cells of the lower gastrointestinal tract, Int. J. Exp. Pathol, vol.92, pp.219-250, 2011.

F. Reimann, G. Tolhurst, and F. M. Gribble, G-protein-coupled receptors in intestinal chemosensation, Cell Metab, vol.15, pp.421-452, 2012.

F. Reimann, P. S. Ward, and F. M. Gribble, Signaling Mechanisms Underlying the Release of Glucagon-Like Peptide 1, Diabetes, vol.55, pp.78-85, 2006.

F. Reimann, Glucose sensing in L cells: a primary cell study, Cell Metab, vol.8, pp.532-541, 2008.

E. L. Symonds, Mechanisms of activation of mouse and human enteroendocrine cells by nutrients, Gut, 2014.

M. S. Engelstoft, K. L. Egerod, B. Holst, and T. W. Schwartz, A gut feeling for obesity: 7TM sensors on enteroendocrine cells, Cell Metab, vol.8, pp.447-456, 2008.

R. E. Steinert and C. Beglinger, Nutrient sensing in the gut: interactions between chemosensory cells, visceral afferents and the secretion of satiation peptides, Physiol. Behav, vol.105, pp.62-70, 2011.

N. Van-der-wielen, Cross-Species Comparison of Genes Related to Nutrient Sensing Mechanisms Expressed along the Intestine, PLoS One, vol.9, p.107531, 2014.

R. A. Reimer, Meat hydrolysate and essential amino acid-induced glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion, in the human NCI-H716 enteroendocrine cell line, is regulated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 and p38 mitogenactivated protein kinases, J. Endocrinol, vol.191, pp.159-70, 2006.

R. E. Roberts, The relationship between postprandial bile acid concentration, GLP-1, PYY and ghrelin, Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf), vol.74, pp.67-72, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00600463

T. E. Adrian, Rectal taurocholate increases L cell and insulin secretion, and decreases blood glucose and food intake in obese type 2 diabetic volunteers, Diabetologia, vol.55, pp.2343-2350, 2012.

V. Bala, Release of GLP-1 and PYY in response to the activation of G protein-coupled bile acid receptor TGR5 is mediated by Epac/PLC-ε pathway and modulated by endogenous H2S, Front. Physiol, vol.5, p.420, 2014.

A. C. Gerspach, R. E. Steinert, L. Schönenberger, A. Graber-maier, and C. Beglinger, The role of the gut sweet taste receptor in regulating GLP-1, PYY, and CCK release in humans, Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab, vol.301, pp.317-342, 2011.

N. Rozengurt, Colocalization of the alpha-subunit of gustducin with PYY and GLP-1 in L cells of human colon, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol, vol.291, pp.792-802, 2006.

H. Jang, Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, vol.104, pp.15069-74, 2007.

B. Svendsen, An analysis of co-secretion and co-expression of gut hormones from male rat proximal and distal small intestine, Endocrinology, vol.156, p.20141710, 2014.

J. Grosse, Insulin-like peptide 5 is an orexigenic gastrointestinal hormone, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, vol.111, pp.11133-11141, 2014.

P. Janssen, A. Rotondo, F. Mulé, and J. Tack, Review article: a comparison of glucagon-like peptides 1 and 2, Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther, 2012.

L. L. Baggio and D. J. Drucker, Clinical endocrinology and metabolism. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon-like peptide-2, Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab, vol.18, pp.531-54, 2004.

I. R. Tough, Endogenous peptide YY and neuropeptide Y inhibit colonic ion transport, contractility and transit differentially via Y? and Y? receptors, Br. J. Pharmacol, vol.164, pp.471-84, 2011.

L. Wang, Peripheral peptide YY inhibits propulsive colonic motor function through Y2 receptor in conscious mice, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol, vol.298, pp.45-56, 2010.

L. Ferrier, Pathways and receptors involved in peptide YY induced contraction of rat proximal colonic muscle in vitro, Gut, vol.46, pp.370-375, 2000.

R. L. Batterham, Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake, Nature, vol.418, pp.650-654, 2002.

D. Boey, PYY transgenic mice are protected against diet-induced and genetic obesity, Neuropeptides, vol.42, pp.19-30, 2008.

D. Silva and A. , The gut hormones PYY 3-36 and GLP-1 7-36 amide reduce food intake and modulate brain activity in appetite centers in humans, Cell Metab, vol.14, pp.700-706, 2011.

K. Chandarana, Diet and gastrointestinal bypass-induced weight loss: the roles of ghrelin and peptide YY, Diabetes, vol.60, pp.810-818, 2011.

M. Werling, Long-term results of a randomized clinical trial comparing Roux-en-Y gastric bypass with vertical banded gastroplasty, Br. J. Surg, 2012.

R. L. Batterham, Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36, N. Engl. J. Med, vol.349, pp.941-949, 2003.

M. Cordier-bussat, Peptones stimulate both the secretion of the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 and the transcription of the proglucagon gene, Diabetes, vol.47, pp.1038-1083, 1998.

A. M. Habib, P. Richards, G. J. Rogers, F. Reimann, and F. M. Gribble, Co-localisation and secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 and peptide YY from primary cultured human L cells, Diabetologia, 2013.

H. C. Lin, W. Y. Chey, and X. Zhao, Release of distal gut peptide YY (PYY) by fat in proximal gut depends on CCK?, Peptides, vol.21, pp.1561-1563, 2000.

T. Onaga, R. Zabielski, and S. Kato, Multiple regulation of peptide YY secretion in the digestive tract, Peptides, vol.23, pp.279-290, 2002.

L. Degen, Effect of CCK-1 receptor blockade on ghrelin and PYY secretion in men, Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol, vol.292, pp.1391-1400, 2007.

J. H. Cummings, Short chain fatty acids in the human colon, Gut, vol.22, pp.763-79, 1981.

A. Schwiertz, Microbiota and SCFA in lean and overweight healthy subjects. Obesity (Silver Spring), vol.18, pp.190-195, 2010.

J. Zhou, Dietary resistant starch upregulates total GLP-1 and PYY in a sustained day-long manner through fermentation in rodents, Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab, vol.295, pp.1160-1166, 2008.

B. S. Samuel, Effects of the gut microbiota on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G protein-coupled receptor, Gpr41. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, vol.105, pp.16767-72, 2008.

P. D. Cani, Gut microbiota fermentation of prebiotics increases satietogenic and incretin gut peptide production with consequences for appetite sensation and glucose response after a meal, Am. J. Clin. Nutr, vol.90, pp.1236-1279, 2009.

N. Petersen, Generation of L cells in mouse and human small intestine organoids, Diabetes, vol.63, pp.410-430, 2014.

P. D. Cani, S. Hoste, Y. Guiot, and N. M. Delzenne, Dietary non-digestible carbohydrates promote L-cell differentiation in the proximal colon of rats, Br. J. Nutr, vol.98, pp.32-39, 2007.

J. R. Davie, Inhibition of histone deacetylase activity by butyrate, J. Nutr, vol.133, pp.2485-2493, 2003.

D. K. Covington, C. A. Briscoe, A. J. Brown, and C. K. Jayawickreme, The G-protein-coupled receptor 40 family (GPR40-GPR43) and its role in nutrient sensing, Biochem. Soc. Trans, vol.34, pp.770-773, 2006.

A. J. Brown, The Orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids, J. Biol. Chem, vol.278, pp.11312-11321, 2003.

L. Poul and E. , Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation, J. Biol. Chem, vol.278, pp.25481-25490, 2003.

M. Thangaraju, GPR109A is a G-protein-coupled receptor for the bacterial fermentation product butyrate and functions as a tumor suppressor in colon, Cancer Res, vol.69, pp.2826-2858, 2009.

A. K. Taggart, D)-beta-Hydroxybutyrate inhibits adipocyte lipolysis via the nicotinic acid receptor PUMA-G, J. Biol. Chem, vol.280, pp.26649-52, 2005.

S. Karaki, Short-chain fatty acid receptor, GPR43, is expressed by enteroendocrine cells and mucosal mast cells in rat intestine, Cell Tissue Res, vol.324, pp.353-60, 2006.

H. Tazoe, Roles of short-chain fatty acids receptors, GPR41 and GPR43 on colonic functions, J. Physiol. Pharmacol, vol.59, issue.2, pp.251-62, 2008.

S. Karaki, Expression of the short-chain fatty acid receptor, GPR43, in the human colon, J. Mol. Histol, vol.39, pp.135-177, 2008.

M. K. Nøhr, GPR41/FFAR3 and GPR43/FFAR2 as Cosensors for Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Enteroendocrine Cells vs FFAR3 in Enteric Neurons and FFAR2 in Enteric Leukocytes, Endocrinology, 2013.

B. D. Hudson, I. G. Tikhonova, S. K. Pandey, T. Ulven, and G. Milligan, Extracellular ionic locks determine variation in constitutive activity and ligand potency between species orthologs of the free fatty acid receptors FFA2 and FFA3, J. Biol. Chem, vol.287, pp.41195-209, 2012.

K. R. Freeland and T. M. Wolever, Acute effects of intravenous and rectal acetate on glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY, ghrelin, adiponectin and tumour necrosis factor-?, Br. J. Nutr, vol.103, pp.460-466, 2010.

C. Cherbut, Short-chain fatty acids modify colonic motility through nerves and polypeptide YY release in the rat, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, vol.275, pp.1415-1422, 1998.

E. S. Chambers, Effects of targeted delivery of propionate to the human colon on appetite regulation, body weight maintenance and adiposity in overweight adults, Gut, 2014.

G. Tolhurst, Short-chain fatty acids stimulate glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion via the G-protein-coupled receptor FFAR2, Diabetes, vol.61, pp.364-71, 2012.

H. Lin, Butyrate and propionate protect against diet-induced obesity and regulate gut hormones via free fatty acid receptor 3-independent mechanisms, PLoS One, vol.7, p.35240, 2012.

I. Kaji, S. Karaki, and A. Kuwahara, Short-chain Fatty Acid receptor and its contribution to glucagon-like Peptide-1 release, Digestion, vol.89, pp.31-37, 2014.

I. Kaji, S. Karaki, R. Tanaka, and A. Kuwahara, Density distribution of free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2)-expressing and GLP-1-producing enteroendocrine L cells in human and rat lower intestine, and increased cell numbers after ingestion of fructo-oligosaccharide, J. Mol. Histol, vol.42, pp.27-38, 2010.

J. Schindelin, Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis, Nat. Methods, vol.9, pp.676-82, 2012.

R. A. Reimer, A Human Cellular Model for Studying the Regulation of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion, Endocrinology, vol.142, pp.4522-4528, 2001.

S. Siavoshian, Butyrate and trichostatin A effects on the proliferation/differentiation of human intestinal epithelial cells: induction of cyclin D3 and p21 expression, Gut, vol.46, pp.507-521, 2000.

P. V. Chang, L. Hao, S. Offermanns, and R. Medzhitov, The microbial metabolite butyrate regulates intestinal macrophage function via histone deacetylase inhibition, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, vol.111, pp.2247-52, 2014.

M. M. Rahman, Two histone deacetylase inhibitors, trichostatin A and sodium butyrate, suppress differentiation into osteoclasts but not into macrophages, Blood, vol.101, pp.3451-3460, 2003.

X. Cao, G. Flock, C. Choi, D. M. Irwin, and D. J. Drucker, Aberrant regulation of human intestinal proglucagon gene expression in the NCI-H716 cell line, Endocrinology, vol.144, pp.2025-2058, 2003.

A. Psichas, The short chain fatty acid propionate stimulates GLP-1 and PYY secretion via free fatty acid receptor 2 in rodents, Int. J. Obes. (Lond), vol.39, pp.424-433, 2015.

J. A. Parnell and R. A. Reimer, Weight loss during oligofructose supplementation is associated with decreased ghrelin and increased peptide YY in overweight and obese adults, Am. J. Clin. Nutr, vol.89, pp.1751-1760, 2009.

C. W. Le-roux, Attenuated peptide YY release in obese subjects is associated with reduced satiety, Endocrinology, vol.147, pp.3-8, 2006.

L. Chatelier and E. , Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers, Nature, vol.500, pp.541-547, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01190602

C. De-filippo, Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, vol.107, pp.14691-14697, 2010.

J. Ou, Diet, microbiota, and microbial metabolites in colon cancer risk in rural Africans and African Americans, Am. J. Clin. Nutr, vol.98, pp.111-131, 2013.

L. El-oufir, Relations between transit time, fermentation products, and hydrogen consuming flora in healthy humans, Gut, vol.38, pp.870-877, 1996.

D. Vandeputte, Stool consistency is strongly associated with gut microbiota richness and composition, enterotypes and bacterial growth rates, Gut, 2015.

E. Karra and R. L. Batterham, The role of gut hormones in the regulation of body weight and energy homeostasis, Mol. Cell. Endocrinol, vol.316, pp.120-128, 2010.

M. Camilleri, Peripheral mechanisms in appetite regulation, Gastroenterology, vol.148, pp.1219-1252, 2015.

J. F. Rehfeld, The new biology of gastrointestinal hormones, Physiol. Rev, vol.78, pp.1087-108, 1998.

A. R. Gunawardene, B. M. Corfe, and C. A. Staton, Classification and functions of enteroendocrine cells of the lower gastrointestinal tract, Int. J. Exp. Pathol, vol.92, pp.219-250, 2011.

C. Sternini, L. Anselmi, and E. Rozengurt, Enteroendocrine cells: a site of 'taste' in gastrointestinal chemosensing, Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes. Obes, vol.15, pp.73-81, 2008.

P. D. Cani, S. Hoste, Y. Guiot, and N. M. Delzenne, Dietary non-digestible carbohydrates promote L-cell differentiation in the proximal colon of rats, Br. J. Nutr, vol.98, pp.32-39, 2007.

F. Reimann, G. Tolhurst, and F. M. Gribble, G-protein-coupled receptors in intestinal chemosensation, Cell Metab, vol.15, pp.421-452, 2012.

H. E. Parker, F. M. Gribble, and F. Reimann, The role of gut endocrine cells in control of metabolism and appetite, Exp. Physiol, vol.99, pp.1116-1136, 2014.

B. Svendsen, An analysis of co-secretion and co-expression of gut hormones from male rat proximal and distal small intestine, Endocrinology, vol.156, p.20141710, 2014.

D. Rondas, W. D'hertog, L. Overbergh, and C. Mathieu, Glucagon-like peptide-1: modulator of ?-cell dysfunction and death, Diabetes. Obes. Metab, vol.15, pp.185-92, 2013.

N. El-jamal, Glugacon-like peptide-2: broad receptor expression, limited therapeutic effect on intestinal inflammation and novel role in liver regeneration, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol, vol.307, pp.274-85, 2014.

P. Janssen, A. Rotondo, F. Mulé, and J. Tack, Review article: a comparison of glucagon-like peptides 1 and 2, Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther, 2012.

I. R. Tough, Endogenous peptide YY and neuropeptide Y inhibit colonic ion transport, contractility and transit differentially via Y? and Y? receptors, Br. J. Pharmacol, vol.164, pp.471-84, 2011.

D. Silva and A. , The gut hormones PYY 3-36 and GLP-1 7-36 amide reduce food intake and modulate brain activity in appetite centers in humans, Cell Metab, vol.14, pp.700-706, 2011.

R. A. Reimer, A Human Cellular Model for Studying the Regulation of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion, Endocrinology, vol.142, pp.4522-4528, 2001.

H. Jang, Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A, vol.104, pp.15069-74, 2007.

L. Nevé, B. Daniel, and H. , Selected tetrapeptides lead to a GLP-1 release from the human enteroendocrine cell line NCI-H716, Regul. Pept, vol.167, pp.14-20, 2011.

A. Hirasawa, Free fatty acids regulate gut incretin glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion through GPR120, Nat. Med, vol.11, pp.90-94, 2005.

J. H. Cummings, Short chain fatty acids in the human colon, Gut, vol.22, pp.763-79, 1981.

G. Den-besten, The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism, J. Lipid Res, vol.54, pp.2325-2365, 2013.

S. Akira, S. Uematsu, and O. Takeuchi, Pathogen recognition and innate immunity, Cell, vol.124, pp.783-801, 2006.

T. Kawai and S. Akira, Signaling to NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptors, Trends Mol. Med, vol.13, pp.460-469, 2007.

C. L. Graves, A method for high purity intestinal epithelial cell culture from adult human and murine tissues for the investigation of innate immune function, J. Immunol. Methods, vol.414, pp.20-31, 2014.

M. T. Abreu, Toll-like receptor signalling in the intestinal epithelium: how bacterial recognition shapes intestinal function, Nat. Rev. Immunol, vol.10, pp.131-175, 2010.

R. Santaolalla, M. Fukata, and M. T. Abreu, Innate immunity in the small intestine, Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol, vol.27, pp.125-156, 2011.

C. Rumio, Induction of Paneth cell degranulation by orally administered Toll-like receptor ligands, J. Cell. Physiol, vol.227, pp.1107-1120, 2012.

M. Bogunovic, Enteroendocrine cells express functional Toll-like receptors, Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol, vol.292, pp.1770-83, 2007.

M. Palazzo, Activation of enteroendocrine cells via TLRs induces hormone, chemokine, and defensin secretion, J. Immunol, vol.178, pp.4296-303, 2007.

M. Kidd and B. I. Gustafsson, Drozdov, I. & Modlin, i. m. IL1?-and LPS-induced serotonin secretion is increased in EC cells derived from Crohn's disease, Neurogastroenterol. Motil, vol.21, pp.439-450, 2009.

J. Schindelin, Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis, Nat. Methods, vol.9, pp.676-82, 2012.

S. Selleri, Induction of pro-inflammatory programs in enteroendocrine cells by the Toll-like receptor agonists flagellin and bacterial LPS, Int. Immunol, vol.20, pp.961-70, 2008.

J. Lee, Maintenance of colonic homeostasis by distinctive apical TLR9 signalling in intestinal epithelial cells, Nat. Cell Biol, vol.8, pp.1327-1363, 2006.

F. Heil, Species-specific recognition of single-stranded RNA via toll-like receptor 7 and 8, Science, vol.303, pp.1526-1535, 2004.

T. E. Adrian, Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY, Gastroenterology, vol.89, pp.1070-1077, 1985.

R. L. Batterham and S. R. Bloom, The gut hormone peptide YY regulates appetite, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci, vol.994, pp.162-170, 2003.

L. Ferrier, Pathways and receptors involved in peptide YY induced contraction of rat proximal colonic muscle in vitro, Gut, vol.46, pp.370-375, 2000.

T. Higashiguchi, Y. Noguchi, A. Noffsinger, J. E. Fischer, and P. O. Hasselgren, Sepsis increases production of total secreted proteins, vasoactive intestinal peptide, and peptide YY in isolated rat enterocytes, Am. J. Surg, vol.168, pp.251-257, 1994.

P. T. Pfluger, Effect of human body weight changes on circulating levels of peptide YY and peptide YY3-36, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab, vol.92, pp.583-591, 2007.

Y. Khosravi, Helicobacter pylori infection can affect energy modulating hormones and body weight in germ free mice, Sci. Rep, vol.5, p.8731, 2015.

M. El-salhy, D. Gundersen, J. G. Hatlebakk, and T. Hausken, High densities of serotonin and peptide YY cells in the colon of patients with lymphocytic colitis, World J. Gastroenterol, vol.18, pp.6070-6075, 2012.

H. S. Kim, J. H. Lim, H. Park, and S. Lee, Increased immunoendocrine cells in intestinal mucosa of postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome patients 3 years after acute Shigella infection--an observation in a small case control study, Yonsei Med. J, vol.51, pp.45-51, 2010.

M. J. Murray and A. B. Murray, Anorexia of infection as a mechanism of host defense, Am. J. Clin. Nutr, vol.32, pp.593-599, 1979.

M. S. Exton, Infection-induced anorexia: active host defence strategy, Appetite, vol.29, pp.369-83, 1997.

L. Ferrier, Functional mapping of NPY/PYY receptors in rat and human gastro-intestinal tract, Peptides, vol.23, pp.1765-1771, 2002.

A. P. Savage, T. E. Adrian, G. Carolan, V. K. Chatterjee, and S. R. Bloom, Effects of peptide YY (PYY) on mouth to caecum intestinal transit time and on the rate of gastric emptying in healthy volunteers, Gut, vol.28, pp.166-70, 1987.

G. Cuche, J. C. Cuber, and C. H. Malbert, Ileal short-chain fatty acids inhibit gastric motility by a humoral pathway, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, vol.279, pp.925-930, 2000.

R. L. Batterham, Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake, Nature, vol.418, pp.650-654, 2002.

X. Cao, New DNA-sensing pathway feeds RIG-I with RNA, Nat. Immunol, vol.10, pp.1049-51, 2009.

C. Rumio, Degranulation of paneth cells via toll-like receptor 9, Am. J. Pathol, vol.165, pp.373-81, 2004.

M. Vijay-kumar, Metabolic syndrome and altered gut microbiota in mice lacking Toll-like receptor 5, Science, vol.328, pp.228-259, 2010.

L. Grasa, Antibiotic-Induced Depletion of Murine Microbiota Induces Mild Inflammation and Changes in TollLike Receptor Patterns and Intestinal Motility, Microb. Ecol, 2015.

M. Anitha, M. Vijay-kumar, S. V. Sitaraman, A. T. Gewirtz, and S. Srinivasan, Gut microbial products regulate murine gastrointestinal motility via Toll-like receptor 4 signaling, Gastroenterology, vol.143, p.4, 2012.

K. Aaboe, F. K. Knop, T. Vilsbøll, C. F. Deacon, J. J. Holst et al., Twelve weeks treatment with the DPP-4 inhibitor, sitagliptin, prevents degradation of peptide YY and improves glucose and non-glucose induced insulin secretion in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, Obesity & Metabolism, vol.12, issue.4, pp.323-356, 2010.

C. A. Abbott, E. Baker, G. R. Sutherland, and G. W. Mccaughan, Genomic organization, exact localization, and tissue expression of the human CD26 (dipeptidyl peptidase IV) gene, Immunogenetics, vol.40, issue.5, pp.331-339, 1994.

C. R. Abbott, M. Monteiro, C. J. Small, A. Sajedi, K. L. Smith et al., The inhibitory effects of peripheral administration of peptide YY(3-36) and glucagon-like peptide-1 on food intake are attenuated by ablation of the vagal-brainstem-hypothalamic pathway, Brain Research, vol.1044, issue.1, pp.127-158, 2005.

J. Abello, F. Ye, A. Bosshard, C. Bernard, J. C. Cuber et al., Stimulation of glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion by muscarinic agonist in a murine intestinal endocrine cell line, Endocrinology, vol.134, issue.5, pp.2011-2018, 1994.

M. T. Abreu, Toll-like receptor signalling in the intestinal epithelium: how bacterial recognition shapes intestinal function, Nature Reviews. Immunology, vol.10, issue.2, pp.131-175, 2010.

A. Acosta, M. D. Hurtado, O. Gorbatyuk, M. La-sala, D. Duncan et al., Salivary PYY: a putative bypass to satiety, PloS One, vol.6, issue.10, 2011.

C. Acuna-goycolea and A. N. Van-den-pol, Peptide YY(3-36) inhibits both anorexigenic proopiomelanocortin and orexigenic neuropeptide Y neurons: implications for hypothalamic regulation of energy homeostasis, The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, vol.25, issue.45, pp.10510-10519, 2005.

S. H. Adams, W. B. Won, S. E. Schonhoff, A. B. Leiter, and J. R. Paterniti, Effects of peptide YY[3-36] on short-term food intake in mice are not affected by prevailing plasma ghrelin levels, Endocrinology, vol.145, issue.11, pp.4967-75, 2004.

M. L. Addison, J. S. Minnion, J. C. Shillito, K. Suzuki, T. M. Tan et al., A role for metalloendopeptidases in the breakdown of the gut hormone, Endocrinology, vol.152, issue.12, pp.4630-4670, 2011.

T. E. Adrian, G. H. Ballantyne, W. E. Longo, A. J. Bilchik, S. Graham et al., Deoxycholate is an important releaser of peptide YY and enteroglucagon from the human colon, Gut, vol.34, issue.9, pp.1219-1243, 1993.

T. E. Adrian, G. L. Ferri, A. J. Bacarese-hamilton, H. S. Fuessl, J. M. Polak et al., Human distribution and release of a putative new gut hormone, peptide YY, Gastroenterology, vol.89, issue.5, pp.1070-1077, 1985.

T. E. Adrian, S. Gariballa, K. A. Parekh, S. A. Thomas, H. Saadi et al., Rectal taurocholate increases L cell and insulin secretion, and decreases blood glucose and food intake in obese type 2 diabetic volunteers, Diabetologia, vol.55, issue.9, pp.2343-2350, 2012.

T. E. Adrian, H. A. Smith, S. A. Calvert, A. Aynsley-green, and S. R. Bloom, Elevated plasma peptide YY in human neonates and infants, Pediatric Research, vol.20, issue.12, pp.1225-1232, 1986.

S. Afroze, F. Meng, K. Jensen, K. Mcdaniel, K. Rahal et al., The physiological roles of secretin and its receptor, Annals of Translational Medicine, vol.1, issue.3, p.29, 2013.

N. Ahituv, N. Kavaslar, W. Schackwitz, A. Ustaszewska, J. M. Collier et al., A PYY Q62P variant linked to human obesity, Human Molecular Genetics, vol.15, issue.3, pp.387-91, 2006.

J. Akerboom, T. Chen, T. J. Wardill, L. Tian, J. S. Marvin et al., Optimization of a GCaMP calcium indicator for neural activity imaging, The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, vol.32, issue.40, 2012.

S. Akira, S. Uematsu, and O. Takeuchi, Pathogen recognition and innate immunity, Cell, vol.124, issue.4, pp.783-801, 2006.

Y. Anini, Muscarinic Receptors Control Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Secretion by Human Endocrine L Cells, Endocrinology, vol.144, issue.7, pp.3244-3250, 2003.

Y. Anini, X. Fu-cheng, J. C. Cuber, A. Kervran, J. Chariot et al., Comparison of the postprandial release of peptide YY and proglucagon-derived peptides in the rat, Pflügers Archiv : European Journal of Physiology, vol.438, issue.3, pp.299-306, 1999.

F. Aragón, M. Karaca, A. Novials, R. Maldonado, P. Maechler et al., Pancreatic polypeptide regulates glucagon release through PPYR1 receptors expressed in mouse and human alpha-cells, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, vol.1850, issue.2, pp.343-51, 2015.

R. M. Arantes and A. M. Nogueira, Increased intracellular content of enteroglucagon in proximal colon is related to intestinal adaptation to germ-free status, Cell and Tissue Research, vol.303, issue.3, pp.447-450, 2001.

R. M. Arantes and A. M. Nogueira, Distribution of enteroglucagon-and peptide YY-immunoreactive cells in the intestinal mucosa of germ-free and conventional mice, Cell and Tissue Research, vol.290, issue.1, pp.61-70, 1997.

T. Arora, R. L. Loo, J. Anastasovska, G. R. Gibson, K. M. Tuohy et al., Differential effects of two fermentable carbohydrates on central appetite regulation and body composition, PloS One, vol.7, issue.8, p.43263, 2012.

M. Arumugam, J. Raes, E. Pelletier, D. Le-paslier, T. Yamada et al., Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome, Nature, vol.473, issue.7346, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/cea-00903625

T. Ayabe, D. P. Satchell, C. L. Wilson, W. C. Parks, M. E. Selsted et al., Secretion of microbicidal alphadefensins by intestinal Paneth cells in response to bacteria, Nature Immunology, vol.1, issue.2, pp.113-121, 2000.

A. Bado, D. Cloarec, L. Moizo, J. P. Laigneau, D. Bataille et al., Neurotensin and oxyntomodulin-(30-37) potentiate PYY regulation of gastric acid and somatostatin secretions, The American Journal of Physiology, vol.265, issue.1, pp.113-120, 1993.

V. Bala, S. Rajagopal, D. P. Kumar, A. D. Nalli, S. Mahavadi et al., Release of GLP-1 and PYY in response to the activation of G protein-coupled bile acid receptor TGR5 is mediated by Epac/PLC-ε pathway and modulated by endogenous H2S, Frontiers in Physiology, vol.5, p.420, 2014.

N. Barker, J. H. Van-es, J. Kuipers, P. Kujala, M. Van-den-born et al., Identification of stem cells in small intestine and colon by marker gene Lgr5, Nature, issue.7165, pp.1003-1010, 2007.

D. Bataille, Pro-protein convertases in intermediary metabolism: islet hormones, brain/gut hormones and integrated physiology, Journal of Molecular Medicine, issue.7, pp.673-84, 2007.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00175786

E. Batlle, J. T. Henderson, H. Beghtel, M. M. Van-den-born, E. Sancho et al., Beta-catenin and TCF mediate cell positioning in the intestinal epithelium by controlling the expression of EphB/ephrinB, Cell, vol.111, issue.2, pp.251-63, 2002.

R. L. Batterham and S. R. Bloom, The gut hormone peptide YY regulates appetite, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.994, pp.162-170, 2003.

R. L. Batterham, M. A. Cowley, C. J. Small, H. Herzog, M. A. Cohen et al., Gut hormone PYY(3-36) physiologically inhibits food intake, Nature, vol.418, issue.6898, pp.650-654, 2002.

R. L. Batterham, D. H. Ffytche, J. M. Rosenthal, F. O. Zelaya, G. J. Barker et al., PYY modulation of cortical and hypothalamic brain areas predicts feeding behaviour in humans, Nature, vol.450, pp.106-115, 2007.

R. L. Batterham, H. Heffron, S. Kapoor, J. E. Chivers, K. Chandarana et al., Critical role for peptide YY in protein-mediated satiation and body-weight regulation, Cell Metabolism, vol.4, issue.3, pp.223-256, 2006.

R. L. Batterham, C. W. Le-roux, M. A. Cohen, A. J. Park, S. M. Ellis et al., Pancreatic polypeptide reduces appetite and food intake in humans, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.88, issue.8, pp.3989-92, 2003.

M. M. Berglund, P. A. Hipskind, and D. R. Gehlert, Recent developments in our understanding of the physiological role of PP-fold peptide receptor subtypes, Experimental Biology and Medicine, vol.228, issue.3, pp.217-261, 2003.

M. J. Berna and R. T. Jensen, Role of CCK/gastrin receptors in gastrointestinal/metabolic diseases and results of human studies using gastrin/CCK receptor agonists/antagonists in these diseases, Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, vol.7, issue.12, pp.1211-1242, 2007.

G. Bertrand, R. Gross, M. Roye, B. Ahrén, and G. Ribes, Evidence for a direct inhibitory effect of PYY on insulin secretion in rats, Pancreas, vol.7, issue.5, pp.595-600, 1992.

A. Beucher, E. Gjernes, C. Collin, M. Courtney, A. Meunier et al., The homeodomaincontaining transcription factors Arx and Pax4 control enteroendocrine subtype specification in mice, PloS One, vol.7, issue.5, p.36449, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00760293

H. J. Binder, V. Rajendran, V. Sadasivan, and J. P. Geibel, Bicarbonate secretion: a neglected aspect of colonic ion transport, Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, vol.39, issue.4, pp.53-61, 2005.

M. Bjerknes and H. Cheng, Neurogenin 3 and the enteroendocrine cell lineage in the adult mouse small intestinal epithelium, Developmental Biology, vol.300, issue.2, pp.722-757, 2006.

M. Bjerknes and H. Cheng, Cell Lineage metastability in Gfi1-deficient mouse intestinal epithelium, Developmental Biology, vol.345, issue.1, pp.49-63, 2010.

M. Bjerknes, C. Khandanpour, T. Möröy, T. Fujiyama, M. Hoshino et al., Origin of the brush cell lineage in the mouse intestinal epithelium, Developmental Biology, vol.362, issue.2, pp.194-218, 2012.

J. Boch, H. Scholze, S. Schornack, A. Landgraf, S. Hahn et al., Breaking the code of DNA binding specificity of TAL-type III effectors, Science, issue.5959, p.326, 2009.

D. Boey, L. Heilbronn, A. Sainsbury, R. Laybutt, A. Kriketos et al., Low serum PYY is linked to insulin resistance in first-degree relatives of subjects with type 2 diabetes, Neuropeptides, vol.40, issue.5, pp.317-341, 2006.

D. Boey, S. Lin, R. F. Enriquez, N. J. Lee, K. Slack et al., PYY transgenic mice are protected against diet-induced and genetic obesity, Neuropeptides, vol.42, issue.1, 2008.

D. Boey, S. Lin, T. Karl, P. Baldock, N. Lee et al., Peptide YY ablation in mice leads to the development of hyperinsulinaemia and obesity, Diabetologia, vol.49, issue.6, 2006.

D. Boey, A. Sainsbury, and H. Herzog, The role of peptide YY in regulating glucose homeostasis, Peptides, vol.28, issue.2, pp.390-395, 2007.

M. Bogunovic, S. H. Davé, J. S. Tilstra, D. T. Chang, N. Harpaz et al., Enteroendocrine cells express functional Toll-like receptors, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.292, issue.6, 2007.

D. V. Bohórquez, R. Chandra, L. A. Samsa, S. R. Vigna, and R. A. Liddle, Characterization of basal pseudopod-like processes in ileal and colonic PYY cells, Journal of Molecular Histology, vol.42, issue.1, pp.3-13, 2010.

D. V. Bohórquez, L. A. Samsa, A. Roholt, S. Medicetty, R. Chandra et al., An Enteroendocrine Cell -Enteric Glia Connection Revealed by 3D Electron Microscopy, PloS One, vol.9, issue.2, p.89881, 2014.

J. S. Bonifacino and B. S. Glick, The mechanisms of vesicle budding and fusion, Cell, vol.116, issue.2, pp.153-66, 2004.

M. Boucher and N. Rivard, Regulation and role of brush border-associated ERK1/2 in intestinal epithelial cells, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.311, issue.1, pp.121-128, 2003.

N. Brakch, F. Allemandou, C. Cavadas, E. Grouzmann, and H. R. Brunner, Dibasic cleavage site is required for sorting to the regulated secretory pathway for both pro-and neuropeptide Y, Journal of Neurochemistry, vol.81, issue.6, pp.1166-75, 2002.

I. M. Brennan, N. D. Luscombe-marsh, R. V. Seimon, B. Otto, M. Horowitz et al., Effects of fat, protein, and carbohydrate and protein load on appetite, plasma cholecystokinin, peptide YY, and ghrelin, and energy intake in lean and obese men, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.303, issue.1, 2012.

A. J. Brown, S. M. Goldsworthy, A. A. Barnes, M. M. Eilert, L. Tcheang et al., The Orphan G protein-coupled receptors GPR41 and GPR43 are activated by propionate and other short chain carboxylic acids, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.278, issue.13, pp.11312-11321, 2003.

H. Bu, X. Wang, Y. Tang, V. Koti, and X. Tan, Toll-like receptor 2-mediated peptidoglycan uptake by immature intestinal epithelial cells from apical side and exosome-associated transcellular transcytosis, Journal of Cellular Physiology, vol.222, issue.3, pp.658-68, 2010.

R. Buffa, C. Capella, P. Fontana, L. Usellini, and E. Solcia, Types of endocrine cells in the human colon and rectum, Cell and Tissue Research, vol.192, issue.2, 1978.

G. Burdyga, G. De-lartigue, H. E. Raybould, R. Morris, R. Dimaline et al., Cholecystokinin regulates expression of Y2 receptors in vagal afferent neurons serving the stomach, The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, vol.28, issue.45, pp.11583-92, 2008.

R. D. Burgoyne and A. Morgan, Secretory Granule Exocytosis, Physiological Reviews, vol.83, issue.3, pp.581-632, 2003.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00478869

M. Bürzle, Y. Suzuki, D. Ackermann, H. Miyazaki, N. Maeda et al., The sodium-dependent ascorbic acid transporter family SLC23, Molecular Aspects of Medicine, vol.34, issue.2-3, pp.436-54, 2013.

L. Caberlotto, K. Fuxe, and Y. L. Hurd, Characterization of NPY mRNA-expressing cells in the human brain: co-localization with Y2 but not Y1 mRNA in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and striatum, Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy, vol.20, issue.3-4, pp.327-337, 2000.

C. Cabrele and A. G. Beck-sickinger, Molecular characterization of the ligand-receptor interaction of the neuropeptide Y family, Journal of Peptide Science, vol.6, issue.3, pp.97-122, 2000.

M. Camilleri, Peripheral mechanisms in appetite regulation, Gastroenterology, vol.148, issue.6, pp.1219-1252, 2015.

E. P. Candido, R. Reeves, and J. R. Davie, Sodium butyrate inhibits histone deacetylation in cultured cells, Cell, vol.14, issue.1, pp.105-118, 1978.

P. D. Cani, S. Hoste, Y. Guiot, and N. M. Delzenne, Dietary non-digestible carbohydrates promote L-cell differentiation in the proximal colon of rats, The British Journal of Nutrition, vol.98, issue.1, pp.32-39, 2007.

P. D. Cani, E. Lecourt, E. M. Dewulf, F. M. Sohet, B. D. Pachikian et al., Gut microbiota fermentation of prebiotics increases satietogenic and incretin gut peptide production with consequences for appetite sensation and glucose response after a meal, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.90, issue.5, pp.1236-1279, 2009.

X. Cao, G. Flock, C. Choi, D. M. Irwin, and D. J. Drucker, Aberrant regulation of human intestinal proglucagon gene expression in the NCI-H716 cell line, Endocrinology, vol.144, issue.5, pp.2025-2058, 2003.

E. Cario, G. Gerken, and D. K. Podolsky, Toll-like receptor 2 enhances ZO-1-associated intestinal epithelial barrier integrity via protein kinase C, Gastroenterology, vol.127, issue.1, pp.224-262, 2004.

K. S. Carmon, Q. Lin, X. Gong, A. Thomas, and Q. Liu, LGR5 interacts and cointernalizes with Wnt receptors to modulate Wnt/?-catenin signaling, Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol.32, issue.11, pp.2054-64, 2012.

E. J. Castillo, S. Delgado-aros, M. Camilleri, D. Burton, D. Stephens et al., Effect of oral CCK-1 agonist GI181771X on fasting and postprandial gastric functions in healthy volunteers, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.287, issue.2, pp.363-372, 2004.

T. Cermak, E. L. Doyle, M. Christian, L. Wang, Y. Zhang et al., Efficient design and assembly of custom TALEN and other TAL effector-based constructs for DNA targeting, Nucleic Acids Research, vol.39, issue.12, p.82, 2011.

T. D. Challa, N. Beaton, M. Arnold, G. Rudofsky, W. Langhans et al., Regulation of adipocyte formation by GLP-1/GLP-1R signaling, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.287, issue.9, 2012.

E. S. Chambers, A. Viardot, A. Psichas, D. J. Morrison, K. G. Murphy et al., Effects of targeted delivery of propionate to the human colon on appetite regulation, body weight maintenance and adiposity in overweight adults, Gut, 2014.

K. Chandarana, C. Gelegen, E. E. Irvine, A. I. Choudhury, C. Amouyal et al., Peripheral activation of the Y2-receptor promotes secretion of GLP-1 and improves glucose tolerance, Molecular Metabolism, vol.2, issue.3, pp.142-52, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01584066

K. Chandarana, C. Gelegen, E. Karra, A. I. Choudhury, M. E. Drew et al., Diet and gastrointestinal bypass-induced weight loss: the roles of ghrelin and peptide YY, Diabetes, vol.60, issue.3, pp.810-818, 2011.

N. T. Chartier, M. G. Lainé, B. Ducarouge, C. Oddou, B. Bonaz et al., Enterocytic differentiation is modulated by lipid rafts-dependent assembly of adherens junctions, Experimental Cell Research, vol.317, issue.10, pp.1422-1458, 2011.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00668336

P. K. Chelikani, A. C. Haver, and R. D. Reidelberger, Comparison of the inhibitory effects of PYY(3-36) and PYY(1-36) on gastric emptying in rats, American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.287, issue.5, 2004.

P. K. Chelikani, A. C. Haver, and R. D. Reidelberger, Ghrelin attenuates the inhibitory effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 and peptide YY(3-36) on food intake and gastric emptying in rats, Diabetes, vol.55, issue.11, pp.3038-3084, 2006.

K. Chen and C. Gao, TALENs: Customizable Molecular DNA Scissors for Genome Engineering of Plants, Journal of Genetics and Genomics, vol.40, issue.6, pp.279-271, 2013.

C. Cherbut, L. Ferrier, C. Rozé, Y. Anini, H. Blottière et al., Short-chain fatty acids modify colonic motility through nerves and polypeptide YY release in the rat, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, vol.275, issue.6, pp.1415-1422, 1998.

M. Choi, J. Ozeki, M. Hashizume, S. Kato, H. Ishihara et al., Vitamin D Receptor Activation Induces Peptide YY Transcription in Pancreatic Islets, Endocrinology, 2012.

S. Choi, M. Lee, A. L. Shiu, S. J. Yo, G. Halldén et al., GPR93 activation by protein hydrolysate induces CCK transcription and secretion in STC-1 cells, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.292, issue.5, 2007.

H. C. Clevers and C. L. Bevins, Paneth cells: maestros of the small intestinal crypts, Annual Review of Physiology, vol.75, pp.289-311, 2013.

D. Cloarec, A. Bado, D. Bataille, M. J. Lewin, and M. Dubrasquet, Inhibition of gastric acid secretion by polypeptide YY, oxyntomodulin, neurotensin and their association in cat, Regulatory Peptides, vol.26, issue.2, pp.90023-90025, 1989.

J. P. Cogswell, M. M. Godlevski, G. B. Wisely, W. C. Clay, L. M. Leesnitzer et al., NF-kappa B regulates IL-1 beta transcription through a consensus NF-kappa B binding site and a nonconsensus CRE-like site, Journal of Immunology, vol.153, issue.2, pp.712-735, 1950.

M. A. Cohen, S. M. Ellis, C. W. Roux, . Le, R. L. Batterham et al., Oxyntomodulin Suppresses Appetite and Reduces Food Intake in Humans, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 2013.

L. Cong, F. A. Ran, D. Cox, S. Lin, R. Barretto et al., Multiplex genome engineering using CRISPR/Cas systems, Science, issue.6121, pp.819-842, 2013.

J. L. Coombes and F. Powrie, Dendritic cells in intestinal immune regulation, Nature Reviews. Immunology, vol.8, issue.6, pp.435-481, 2008.

M. Cordier-bussat, C. Bernard, F. Levenez, N. Klages, B. Laser-ritz et al., Peptones stimulate both the secretion of the incretin hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 and the transcription of the proglucagon gene, Diabetes, vol.47, issue.7, pp.1038-1083, 1998.

A. Cotillard, S. P. Kennedy, L. C. Kong, E. Prifti, N. Pons et al., Dietary intervention impact on gut microbial gene richness, Nature, vol.500, issue.7464, pp.585-593, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01001543

H. M. Cox, Endogenous PYY and NPY mediate tonic Y1-and Y2-mediated absorption in human and mouse colon, Nutrition, issue.9, pp.900-906, 2008.

H. M. Cox and I. R. Tough, Neuropeptide Y, Y1, Y2 and Y4 receptors mediate Y agonist responses in isolated human colon mucosa, British Journal of Pharmacology, vol.135, issue.6, pp.1505-1517, 2002.

E. J. Crespi and M. K. Unkefer, Development of food intake controls: neuroendocrine and environmental regulation of food intake during early life, Hormones and Behavior, vol.66, issue.1, pp.74-85, 2014.

G. Cuche, J. C. Cuber, and C. H. Malbert, Ileal short-chain fatty acids inhibit gastric motility by a humoral pathway, Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol, vol.279, issue.5, pp.925-930, 2000.

J. H. Cummings, Short chain fatty acids in the human colon, Gut, vol.22, issue.9, pp.763-79, 1981.

J. H. Cummings, E. W. Pomare, W. J. Branch, C. P. Naylor, and G. T. Macfarlane, Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood, Gut, vol.28, issue.10, pp.1221-1228, 1987.

J. R. Davie, Inhibition of histone deacetylase activity by butyrate, The Journal of Nutrition, vol.133, issue.7, pp.2485-2493, 2003.

A. J. Davis and D. J. Chen, DNA double strand break repair via non-homologous end-joining, Translational Cancer Research, vol.2, issue.3, pp.130-143, 2013.

A. P. De-bruïne, W. N. Dinjens, E. P. Van-der-linden, M. M. Pijls, P. T. Moerkerk et al., Extracellular matrix components induce endocrine differentiation in vitro in NCI-H716 cells, The American Journal of Pathology, vol.142, issue.3, pp.773-82, 1993.

C. De-filippo, D. Cavalieri, M. Di-paola, M. Ramazzotti, J. B. Poullet et al., Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.107, issue.33, pp.14691-14697, 2010.

D. Silva, A. Salem, V. Long, C. J. Makwana, A. Newbould et al., The gut hormones PYY 3-36 and GLP-1 7-36 amide reduce food intake and modulate brain activity in appetite centers in humans, Cell Metabolism, vol.14, issue.5, pp.700-706, 2011.

L. Degen, J. Drewe, F. Piccoli, K. Gräni, S. Oesch et al., Effect of CCK-1 receptor blockade on ghrelin and PYY secretion in men, American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, vol.292, issue.4, pp.1391-1400, 2007.

L. Degen, S. Oesch, M. Casanova, S. Graf, S. Ketterer et al., Effect of peptide YY3-36 on food intake in humans, Gastroenterology, vol.129, issue.5, pp.1430-1436, 2005.

N. M. Delzenne, P. D. Cani, C. Daubioul, and A. M. Neyrinck, Impact of inulin and oligofructose on gastrointestinal peptides, The British Journal of Nutrition, vol.93, issue.1, pp.157-61, 2005.

K. Demary, L. Wong, and R. A. Spanjaard, Effects of retinoic acid and sodium butyrate on gene expression, histone acetylation and inhibition of proliferation of melanoma cells, Cancer Letters, vol.163, issue.1, pp.103-110, 2001.

G. Den-besten, K. Van-eunen, A. K. Groen, K. Venema, D. Reijngoud et al., The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism, Journal of Lipid Research, vol.54, issue.9, 2013.

S. Desai, Z. Loomis, A. Pugh-bernard, J. Schrunk, M. J. Doyle et al., Nkx2.2 regulates cell fate choice in the enteroendocrine cell lineages of the intestine, Developmental Biology, vol.313, issue.1, pp.58-66, 2008.

E. Diakogiannaki, F. M. Gribble, and F. Reimann, Nutrient detection by incretin hormone secreting cells, Physiology & Behavior, vol.106, issue.3, pp.387-93, 2012.

R. Dimaline and A. Varro, Novel roles of gastrin, The Journal of Physiology, vol.592, pp.2951-2959, 2014.

M. Dimitrijevi?, S. Stanojevi?, V. Vuji?, A. Beck-sickinger, and S. Von-hörsten, Neuropeptide Y and its receptor subtypes specifically modulate rat peritoneal macrophage functions in vitro: counter regulation through Y1 and Y2/5 receptors, Regulatory Peptides, vol.124, issue.1-3, pp.163-72, 2005.

W. G. Ding, H. Kimura, M. Fujimura, and M. Fujimiya, Neuropeptide Y and peptide YY immunoreactivities in the pancreas of various vertebrates, Peptides, vol.18, issue.10, pp.1523-1532, 1997.

J. Dolen?ek, M. Skelin, and M. S. Rupnik, Calcium dependencies of regulated exocytosis in different endocrine cells, Physiological Research / Academia Scientiarum Bohemoslovaca, vol.60, issue.1, pp.29-38, 2011.

D. J. Drucker, T. Jin, S. L. Asa, T. A. Young, and P. L. Brubaker, Activation of proglucagon gene transcription by protein kinase-A in a novel mouse enteroendocrine cell line, Molecular Endocrinology, vol.8, issue.12, pp.1646-55, 1994.

A. Du, K. W. Mccracken, E. R. Walp, N. A. Terry, T. J. Klein et al., Arx is required for normal enteroendocrine cell development in mice and humans, Developmental Biology, vol.365, issue.1, pp.175-88, 2012.

P. E. Dubé, K. J. Rowland, and P. L. Brubaker, Glucagon-like peptide-2 activates beta-catenin signaling in the mouse intestinal crypt: role of insulin-like growth factor-I, Endocrinology, vol.149, issue.1, pp.291-301, 2008.

S. H. Duncan, G. Holtrop, G. E. Lobley, A. G. Calder, C. S. Stewart et al., Contribution of acetate to butyrate formation by human faecal bacteria, The British Journal of Nutrition, vol.91, issue.6, pp.915-938, 2004.

J. Dupre, S. A. Ross, D. Watson, and J. C. Brown, Stimulation of insulin secretion by gastric inhibitory polypeptide in man, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.37, issue.5, pp.826-834, 1973.

P. B. Eckburg, E. M. Bik, C. N. Bernstein, E. Purdom, L. Dethlefsen et al., Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora, Science, issue.5728, pp.1635-1643, 2005.

K. L. Egerod, M. S. Engelstoft, K. V. Grunddal, M. K. Nøhr, A. Secher et al., A Major Lineage of Enteroendocrine Cells Coexpress CCK, Secretin, GIP, GLP-1, PYY, and Neurotensin but Not Somatostatin. Endocrinology, 2012.

R. Eissele, R. Göke, S. Willemer, H. P. Harthus, H. Vermeer et al., Glucagon-like peptide-1 cells in the gastrointestinal tract and pancreas of rat, pig and man, European Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.22, issue.4, pp.283-91, 1992.

L. El-oufir, B. Flourié, S. Bruley-des-varannes, J. L. Barry, D. Cloarec et al., Relations between transit time, fermentation products, and hydrogen consuming flora in healthy humans, Gut, vol.38, issue.6, pp.870-877, 1996.

S. Elias, C. Delestre, S. Ory, S. Marais, M. Courel et al., Chromogranin A induces the biogenesis of granules with calcium-and actin-dependent dynamics and exocytosis in constitutively secreting cells, Endocrinology, vol.153, issue.9, pp.4444-56, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01848264

B. Elliott, C. Richardson, J. Winderbaum, J. A. Nickoloff, and M. Jasin, Gene conversion tracts from double-strand break repair in mammalian cells, Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol.18, issue.1, pp.93-101, 1998.

D. F. Evans, G. Pye, R. Bramley, A. G. Clark, T. J. Dyson et al., Measurement of gastrointestinal pH profiles in normal ambulant human subjects, Gut, vol.29, issue.8, pp.1035-1076, 1988.

A. Everard, V. Lazarevic, M. Derrien, M. Girard, G. G. Muccioli et al., Responses of gut microbiota and glucose and lipid metabolism to prebiotics in genetic obese and diet-induced leptin-resistant mice, Diabetes, vol.60, issue.11, pp.2775-86, 2011.

D. A. Ewald, P. C. Sternweis, and R. J. Miller, Guanine nucleotide-binding protein Go-induced coupling of neuropeptide Y receptors to Ca2+ channels in sensory neurons, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.85, issue.10, pp.3633-3637, 1988.

B. Ey, A. Eyking, G. Gerken, D. K. Podolsky, and E. Cario, TLR2 mediates gap junctional intercellular communication through connexin-43 in intestinal epithelial barrier injury, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.284, issue.33, pp.22332-22375, 2009.

V. Fasulo, Z. Zhang, E. R. Price, J. G. Chediack, W. H. Karasov et al., Paracellular absorption in laboratory mice: Molecule size-dependent but low capacity, Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology, vol.164, issue.1, pp.71-77, 2013.

S. S. Ferguson, Evolving concepts in G protein-coupled receptor endocytosis: the role in receptor desensitization and signaling, Pharmacological Reviews, vol.53, issue.1, pp.1-24, 2001.

L. Ferrier, J. P. Segain, P. Pacaud, C. Cherbut, G. Loirand et al., Pathways and receptors involved in peptide YY induced contraction of rat proximal colonic muscle in vitro, Gut, vol.46, issue.3, pp.370-375, 2000.

L. Ferrier, J. Segain, C. Bonnet, C. Cherbut, P. Lehur et al., Functional mapping of NPY/PYY receptors in rat and human gastro-intestinal tract, Peptides, vol.23, issue.10, p.133, 2002.

S. Fiorucci and A. Morelli, Motilin and erythromycin stimulate pepsinogen secretion by chief cells isolated from guinea pig stomach, Gastroenterology, vol.104, issue.4, pp.1030-1036, 1993.

H. J. Flint, E. A. Bayer, M. T. Rincon, R. Lamed, and B. A. White, Polysaccharide utilization by gut bacteria: potential for new insights from genomic analysis, Nature Reviews. Microbiology, vol.6, issue.2, pp.121-152, 2008.

S. Fre, M. Huyghe, P. Mourikis, S. Robine, D. Louvard et al., Notch signals control the fate of immature progenitor cells in the intestine, Nature, vol.435, issue.7044, pp.964-972, 2005.

K. R. Freeland and T. M. Wolever, Acute effects of intravenous and rectal acetate on glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY, ghrelin, adiponectin and tumour necrosis factor-?, British Journal of Nutrition, vol.103, issue.03, pp.460-466, 2010.

X. Fu-cheng, Y. Anini, J. Chariot, T. Voisin, J. P. Galmiche et al., Peptide YY release after intraduodenal, intraileal, and intracolonic administration of nutrients in rats, Pflügers Archiv : European Journal of Physiology, vol.431, issue.1, pp.66-75, 1995.

M. Fukata, A. Chen, A. Klepper, S. Krishnareddy, A. S. Vamadevan et al., Cox-2 is regulated by Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) signaling: Role in proliferation and apoptosis in the intestine, Gastroenterology, vol.131, issue.3, pp.862-77, 2006.

M. Fukuda, T. Mizutani, W. Mochizuki, T. Matsumoto, K. Nozaki et al., Small intestinal stem cell identity is maintained with functional Paneth cells in heterotopically grafted epithelium onto the colon, Genes & Development, vol.28, issue.16, pp.1752-1759, 2014.

J. Furet, L. Kong, J. Tap, C. Poitou, A. Basdevant et al., Differential adaptation of human gut microbiota to bariatric surgery-induced weight loss: links with metabolic and low-grade inflammation markers, Diabetes, vol.59, issue.12, pp.3049-57, 2010.

T. Gaj, C. A. Gersbach, and C. F. Barbas, ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR/Cas-based methods for genome engineering, Trends in Biotechnology, vol.31, issue.7, pp.397-405, 2013.

Q. Gao and T. L. Horvath, Neurobiology of feeding and energy expenditure, vol.30, pp.367-98, 2007.

J. C. García-cañaveras, M. T. Donato, J. V. Castell, and A. Lahoz, Targeted profiling of circulating and hepatic bile acids in human, mouse, and rat using a UPLC-MRM-MS-validated method, Journal of Lipid Research, vol.53, issue.10, pp.2231-2272, 2012.

W. S. Garrett, J. I. Gordon, and L. H. Glimcher, Homeostasis and inflammation in the intestine, Cell, vol.140, issue.6, pp.859-70, 2010.

J. P. Geibel, SECRETION AND ABSORPTION BY COLONIC CRYPTS, Annual Review of Physiology, vol.67, issue.1, 2005.

M. C. Geraedts, F. J. Troost, M. J. Munsters, J. H. Stegen, R. J. De-ridder et al., Intraduodenal administration of intact pea protein effectively reduces food intake in both lean and obese male subjects, PloS One, vol.6, issue.9, 2011.

M. C. Geraedts, F. J. Troost, and W. H. Saris, Peptide-YY is released by the intestinal cell line STC-1, Journal of Food Science, vol.74, issue.2, pp.79-82, 2009.

F. Gerbe, C. Legraverend, and P. Jay, The intestinal epithelium tuft cells: specification and function, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences : CMLS, vol.69, issue.17, pp.2907-2924, 2012.

F. Gerbe, J. H. Van-es, L. Makrini, B. Brulin, G. Mellitzer et al., Distinct ATOH1 and Neurog3 requirements define tuft cells as a new secretory cell type in the intestinal epithelium, The Journal of Cell Biology, vol.192, issue.5, pp.767-80, 2011.

M. Gersemann, S. Becker, I. Kübler, M. Koslowski, G. Wang et al., Differences in goblet cell differentiation between Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Differentiation, Research in Biological Diversity, vol.77, issue.1, pp.84-94, 2009.

M. D. Gershon, 5-Hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) in the gastrointestinal tract, Current Opinion in Endocrinology, vol.20, issue.1, pp.14-21, 2013.

A. Giammanco, A. B. Cefalù, D. Noto, and M. R. Averna, The pathophysiology of intestinal lipoprotein production, Frontiers in Physiology, vol.6, p.61, 2015.

C. Gibbons, P. Caudwell, G. Finlayson, D. Webb, P. M. Hellström et al., Comparison of postprandial profiles of ghrelin, active GLP-1, and total PYY to meals varying in fat and carbohydrate and their association with hunger and the phases of satiety, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.98, issue.5, 2013.

M. S. Gierl, N. Karoulias, H. Wende, M. Strehle, and C. Birchmeier, The zinc-finger factor Insm1 (IA-1) is essential for the development of pancreatic beta cells and intestinal endocrine cells, Genes & Development, vol.20, issue.17, pp.2465-78, 2006.

S. R. Gill, M. Pop, R. T. Deboy, P. B. Eckburg, P. J. Turnbaugh et al., Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome, Science, issue.5778, pp.1355-1364, 2006.

T. D. Gilmore, Introduction to NF-kappaB: players, pathways, perspectives, Oncogene, vol.25, issue.51, pp.6680-6684, 2006.

Ö. Gögebakan, M. A. Osterhoff, R. Schüler, O. Pivovarova, M. Kruse et al., GIP increases adipose tissue expression and blood levels of MCP-1 in humans and links high energy diets to inflammation: a randomised trial, Diabetologia, 2015.

P. Gonçalves, J. R. Araújo, and F. Martel, Characterization of butyrate uptake by nontransformed intestinal epithelial cell lines, The Journal of Membrane Biology, vol.240, issue.1, pp.35-46, 2011.

R. A. Goodlad, B. Ratcliffe, J. P. Fordham, M. A. Ghatei, J. Domin et al., Plasma enteroglucagon, gastrin and peptide YY in conventional and germ-free rats refed with a fibre-free or fibresupplemented diet, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology, vol.74, issue.4, pp.437-479, 1989.

M. Goumain, T. Voisin, A. M. Lorinet, and M. Laburthe, Identification and distribution of mRNA encoding the Y1, Y2, Y4, and Y5 receptors for peptides of the PP-fold family in the rat intestine and colon, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.247, issue.1, pp.52-58, 1998.

D. Grandt, M. Schimiczek, C. Beglinger, P. Layer, H. Goebell et al., Two molecular forms of Peptide YY (PYY) are abundant in human blood: characterization of a radioimmunoassay recognizing PYY 1-36 and PYY 3-36, Regulatory Peptides, vol.51, issue.2, pp.90204-90210, 1994.

D. Grandt, M. Schimiczek, K. Struk, J. Shively, V. E. Eysselein et al., Characterization of two forms of peptide YY, PYY(1-36) and PYY(3-36), in the rabbit, Peptides, vol.15, issue.5, pp.815-835, 1994.

C. L. Graves, S. W. Harden, M. Lapato, M. Nelson, B. Amador et al., A method for high purity intestinal epithelial cell culture from adult human and murine tissues for the investigation of innate immune function, Journal of Immunological Methods, vol.414, pp.20-31, 2014.

G. H. Greeley, F. Lluis, G. Gomez, J. Ishizuka, B. Holland et al., Peptide YY antagonizes beta-adrenergicstimulated release of insulin in dogs, The American Journal of Physiology, vol.254, issue.4, pp.513-520, 1988.

E. Grenier, C. Garofalo, E. Delvin, and E. Levy, Modulatory Role of PYY in Transport and Metabolism of Cholesterol in Intestinal Epithelial Cells, PloS One, vol.7, issue.7, p.40992, 2012.

J. Grosse, H. Heffron, K. Burling, M. Akhter-hossain, A. M. Habib et al., Insulin-like peptide 5 is an orexigenic gastrointestinal hormone, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.111, issue.30, pp.11133-11141, 2014.

S. Gulec, G. J. Anderson, and J. F. Collins, Mechanistic and regulatory aspects of intestinal iron absorption, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.307, issue.4, pp.397-409, 2014.

A. R. Gunawardene, B. M. Corfe, and C. A. Staton, Classification and functions of enteroendocrine cells of the lower gastrointestinal tract, International Journal of Experimental Pathology, vol.92, issue.4, pp.219-250, 2011.

A. M. Habib, P. Richards, G. J. Rogers, F. Reimann, and F. M. Gribble, Co-localisation and secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 and peptide YY from primary cultured human L cells, Diabetologia, 2013.

K. V. Hand, C. M. Bruen, F. O'halloran, H. Panwar, D. Calderwood et al., Examining acute and chronic effects of short-and long-chain fatty acids on peptide YY (PYY) gene expression, cellular storage and secretion in STC-1 cells, European Journal of Nutrition, 2012.

A. C. Hanyaloglu and M. Zastrow, Regulation of GPCRs by endocytic membrane trafficking and its potential implications, Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, vol.48, pp.537-68, 2008.

K. J. Hare, F. K. Knop, M. Asmar, S. Madsbad, C. F. Deacon et al., Preserved inhibitory potency of GLP-1 on glucagon secretion in type 2 diabetes mellitus, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.94, issue.12, pp.4679-87, 2009.

M. Hasegawa and N. Inohara, Regulation of the gut microbiota by the mucosal immune system in mice, International Immunology, vol.26, issue.9, pp.481-488, 2014.

K. M. Heppner and D. Perez-tilve, GLP-1 based therapeutics: simultaneously combating T2DM and obesity, vol.9, p.92, 2015.

C. Herrmann, R. Göke, G. Richter, H. C. Fehmann, R. Arnold et al., Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucosedependent insulin-releasing polypeptide plasma levels in response to nutrients, Digestion, vol.56, issue.2, pp.117-143, 1995.

M. A. Hildebrandt, C. Hoffmann, S. A. Sherrill-mix, S. A. Keilbaugh, M. Hamady et al., High-fat diet determines the composition of the murine gut microbiome independently of obesity, Gastroenterology, vol.137, issue.5, pp.1716-1740, 2009.

B. R. Hill, M. J. De-souza, D. A. Wagstaff, and N. I. Williams, The impact of weight loss on the 24-h profile of circulating peptide YY and its association with 24-h ghrelin in normal weight premenopausal women, Peptides, vol.49, pp.81-90, 2013.

B. R. Hill, M. J. De-souza, and N. I. Williams, Characterization of the diurnal rhythm of peptide YY and its association with energy balance parameters in normal-weight premenopausal women, American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.301, issue.2, 2011.

A. Hirasawa, T. Hara, S. K. Katsuma, T. A. Adachi, and G. T. Tsujimoto, Fatty Acid Receptors and Drug Discovery, pp.1847-1851, 2008.

Y. Hirotani, K. Mikajiri, K. Ikeda, M. Myotoku, and N. Kurokawa, Changes of the peptide YY levels in the intestinal tissue of rats with experimental colitis following oral administration of mesalazine and prednisolone, Yakugaku Zasshi : Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan, vol.128, issue.9, pp.1347-53, 2008.

M. Hosaka, T. Watanabe, Y. Sakai, T. Kato, and T. Takeuchi, Interaction between secretogranin III and carboxypeptidase E facilitates prohormone sorting within secretory granules, Journal of Cell Science, vol.118, pp.4785-95, 2005.

H. P. Huang, M. Liu, H. M. El-hodiri, K. Chu, M. Jamrich et al., Regulation of the pancreatic islet-specific gene BETA2 (neuroD) by neurogenin 3, Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol.20, issue.9, pp.3292-307, 2000.

B. D. Hudson, H. Murdoch, and G. Milligan, Minireview: The effects of species ortholog and SNP variation on receptors for free fatty acids, Molecular Endocrinology, issue.8, pp.1177-87, 2013.

B. D. Hudson, I. G. Tikhonova, S. K. Pandey, T. Ulven, and G. Milligan, Extracellular ionic locks determine variation in constitutive activity and ligand potency between species orthologs of the free fatty acid receptors FFA2 and FFA3, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.287, issue.49, pp.41195-209, 2012.

, Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome, Nature, vol.486, issue.7402, pp.207-221, 2012.

M. D. Hurtado, V. G. Sergeyev, A. Acosta, M. Spegele, M. La-sala et al., Salivary peptide tyrosine-tyrosine 3-36 modulates ingestive behavior without inducing taste aversion, The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, vol.33, issue.47, 2013.

D. Huszar, C. A. Lynch, V. Fairchild-huntress, J. H. Dunmore, Q. Fang et al., Targeted disruption of the melanocortin-4 receptor results in obesity in mice, Cell, vol.88, issue.1, pp.131-172, 1997.

N. Irwin, P. Frizelle, F. P. O'harte, and P. R. Flatt, Metabolic effects of activation of CCK receptor signaling pathways by twice-daily administration of the enzyme-resistant CCK-8 analog, (pGlu-Gln)-CCK-8, in normal mice, The Journal of Endocrinology, vol.216, issue.1, pp.53-62, 2013.

Y. Iwasaki, M. Kakei, H. Nakabayashi, E. Ayush, M. Hirano-kodaira et al., Pancreatic polypeptide and peptide YY(3-36) induce Ca(2+) signaling in nodose ganglion neurons, Neuropeptides, 2012.

H. Jang, Z. Kokrashvili, M. J. Theodorakis, O. D. Carlson, B. Kim et al., Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.104, pp.15069-74, 2007.

J. Jaworek, K. Nawrot-porabka, A. Leja-szpak, and S. J. Konturek, Brain-gut axis in the modulation of pancreatic enzyme secretion, Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology : An Official Journal of the Polish Physiological Society, issue.5, pp.523-554, 2010.

M. Jenny, C. Uhl, C. Roche, I. Duluc, V. Guillermin et al., Neurogenin3 is differentially required for endocrine cell fate specification in the intestinal and gastric epithelium, The EMBO Journal, vol.21, issue.23, pp.6338-6385, 2002.

J. Jensen, E. E. Pedersen, P. Galante, J. Hald, R. S. Heller et al., Control of endodermal endocrine development by Hes-1, Nature Genetics, vol.24, issue.1, pp.36-44, 2000.

M. E. Johansson, J. K. Gustafsson, K. E. Sjöberg, J. Petersson, L. Holm et al., Bacteria penetrate the inner mucus layer before inflammation in the dextran sulfate colitis model, PloS One, vol.5, issue.8, 2010.

M. E. Johansson, J. M. Larsson, and G. C. Hansson, The two mucus layers of colon are organized by the MUC2 mucin, whereas the outer layer is a legislator of host-microbial interactions, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.108, pp.4659-65, 2011.

I. Kaji, S. Karaki, R. Tanaka, and A. Kuwahara, Density distribution of free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2)-expressing and GLP-1-producing enteroendocrine L cells in human and rat lower intestine, and increased cell numbers after ingestion of fructo-oligosaccharide, Journal of Molecular Histology, vol.42, issue.1, pp.27-38, 2010.

I. Kaji, S. Karaki, and A. Kuwahara, Short-chain Fatty Acid receptor and its contribution to glucagon-like Peptide-1 release, Digestion, vol.89, issue.1, pp.31-37, 2014.

J. Kamegai, H. Tamura, T. Shimizu, S. Ishii, H. Sugihara et al., Chronic central infusion of ghrelin increases hypothalamic neuropeptide Y and Agouti-related protein mRNA levels and body weight in rats, Diabetes, vol.50, issue.11, pp.2438-2481, 2001.

S. Karaki, R. Mitsui, H. Hayashi, I. Kato, H. Sugiya et al., Short-chain fatty acid receptor, GPR43, is expressed by enteroendocrine cells and mucosal mast cells in rat intestine, Cell and Tissue Research, vol.324, issue.3, pp.353-60, 2006.

S. Karaki, H. Tazoe, H. Hayashi, H. Kashiwabara, K. Tooyama et al., Expression of the shortchain fatty acid receptor, GPR43, in the human colon, Journal of Molecular Histology, vol.39, issue.2, pp.135-177, 2008.

E. M. Kass and M. Jasin, Collaboration and competition between DNA double-strand break repair pathways, FEBS Letters, vol.584, issue.17, pp.3703-3711, 2010.

J. P. Katz, N. Perreault, B. G. Goldstein, C. S. Lee, P. A. Labosky et al., The zinc-finger transcription factor Klf4 is required for terminal differentiation of goblet cells in the colon, Development, issue.11, pp.2619-2647, 2002.

T. Kawai and S. Akira, Signaling to NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptors, Trends in Molecular Medicine, vol.13, issue.11, pp.460-469, 2007.

Y. Kawamata, R. Fujii, M. Hosoya, M. Harada, H. Yoshida et al., A G protein-coupled receptor responsive to bile acids, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.278, issue.11, 2003.

T. Kawasaki and T. Kawai, Toll-like receptor signaling pathways, Frontiers in Immunology, vol.5, p.461, 2014.

A. Kazanjian and N. F. Shroyer, NOTCH Signaling and ATOH1 in Colorectal Cancers, Current Colorectal Cancer Reports, vol.7, issue.2, pp.121-127, 2011.

D. A. Keire, C. W. Bowers, T. E. Solomon, and J. R. Reeve, Structure and receptor binding of PYY analogs, Peptides, vol.23, issue.2, pp.305-321, 2002.

D. A. Keire, M. Kobayashi, T. E. Solomon, and J. R. Reeve, Solution structure of monomeric peptide YY supports the functional significance of the PP-fold, Biochemistry, vol.39, issue.32, pp.9935-9977, 2000.

G. L. Kellett, E. Brot-laroche, O. J. Mace, and A. Leturque, Sugar absorption in the intestine: the role of GLUT2, Annual Review of Nutrition, vol.28, pp.35-54, 2008.

Y. Khosravi, S. W. Seow, A. A. Amoyo, K. H. Chiow, T. L. Tan et al., Helicobacter pylori infection can affect energy modulating hormones and body weight in germ free mice, Scientific Reports, vol.5, p.8731, 2015.

M. Kidd, B. I. Gustafsson, I. Drozdov, and I. M. Modlin, IL1?-and LPS-induced serotonin secretion is increased in EC cells derived from Crohn's disease, Neurogastroenterology & Motility, vol.21, issue.4, pp.439-450, 2009.

K. Kim, J. M. Egan, and H. Jang, Denatonium induces secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 through activation of bitter taste receptor pathways, Diabetologia, 2014.

W. Kim, J. L. Fiori, Y. Shin, E. Okun, J. S. Kim et al., Pancreatic polypeptide inhibits somatostatin secretion, FEBS Letters, vol.588, issue.17, pp.3233-3242, 2014.

S. E. Knowles, I. G. Jarrett, O. H. Filsell, and F. J. Ballard, Production and utilization of acetate in mammals, The Biochemical Journal, vol.142, issue.2, pp.401-412, 1974.

B. Ko, J. Han, J. Jeong, H. Chae, S. Park et al., Mechanism of action of cholecystokinin on colonic motility in isolated, vascularly perfused rat colon, Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility, vol.17, issue.1, pp.73-81, 2011.

D. Kohno and T. Yada, Arcuate NPY neurons sense and integrate peripheral metabolic signals to control feeding, Neuropeptides, vol.46, issue.6, pp.315-324, 2012.

S. J. Konturek, J. W. Konturek, T. Pawlik, and T. Brzozowski, Brain-gut axis and its role in the control of food intake, Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology : An Official Journal of the Polish Physiological Society, vol.55, issue.1, pp.137-54, 2004.

C. Kosinski, V. S. Li, A. S. Chan, J. Zhang, C. Ho et al., Gene expression patterns of human colon tops and basal crypts and BMP antagonists as intestinal stem cell niche factors, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.104, pp.15418-15441, 2007.

B. Kreymann, G. Williams, M. A. Ghatei, and S. R. Bloom, Glucagon-like peptide-1 7-36: a physiological incretin in man, Lancet, vol.2, issue.8571, pp.1300-1304, 1987.

H. Kumar, T. Kawai, and S. Akira, Toll-like receptors and innate immunity, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.388, issue.4, pp.621-626, 2009.

L. E. Kuo, J. B. Kitlinska, J. U. Tilan, L. Li, S. B. Baker et al., Neuropeptide Y acts directly in the periphery on fat tissue and mediates stress-induced obesity and metabolic syndrome, Nature Medicine, vol.13, issue.7, pp.803-814, 2007.

L. Sala, M. S. Hurtado, M. D. Brown, A. R. Bohórquez, D. V. Liddle et al., Modulation of taste responsiveness by the satiation hormone peptide YY, FASEB Journal : Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, vol.27, issue.12, pp.5022-5055, 2013.

J. Lappi, H. Mykkänen, K. Bach-knudsen, P. Kirjavainen, K. Katina et al., Postprandial glucose metabolism and SCFA after consuming wholegrain rye bread and wheat bread enriched with bioprocessed rye bran in individuals with mild gastrointestinal symptoms, Nutrition Journal, vol.13, issue.1, p.104, 2014.

D. Larhammar and E. Salaneck, Molecular evolution of NPY receptor subtypes, Neuropeptides, vol.38, issue.4, pp.141-51, 2004.

E. T. Larson, R. Fredriksson, S. R. Johansson, and D. Larhammar, Cloning, pharmacology, and distribution of the neuropeptide Y-receptor Yb in rainbow trout, Peptides, vol.24, issue.3, pp.385-95, 2003.

L. Larsson, L. St-onge, D. M. Hougaard, B. Sosa-pineda, and P. Gruss, Pax 4 and 6 regulate gastrointestinal endocrine cell development, Mechanisms of Development, vol.79, issue.1-2, pp.153-159, 1998.

L. Chatelier, E. Nielsen, T. Qin, J. Prifti, E. Hildebrand et al., Richness of human gut microbiome correlates with metabolic markers, Nature, vol.500, issue.7464, pp.541-547, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01190602

L. Nevé, B. Daniel, and H. , Selected tetrapeptides lead to a GLP-1 release from the human enteroendocrine cell line NCI-H716, Regulatory Peptides, vol.167, issue.1, pp.14-20, 2011.

L. Poul, E. Loison, C. Struyf, S. Springael, J. Lannoy et al., Functional characterization of human receptors for short chain fatty acids and their role in polymorphonuclear cell activation, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.278, issue.28, pp.25481-25490, 2003.

C. W. Le-roux, R. L. Batterham, S. J. Aylwin, M. Patterson, C. M. Borg et al., Attenuated peptide YY release in obese subjects is associated with reduced satiety, Endocrinology, vol.147, issue.1, pp.3-8, 2006.

C. W. Le-roux, C. M. Borg, K. G. Murphy, R. P. Vincent, M. A. Ghatei et al., Supraphysiological doses of intravenous PYY3-36 cause nausea, but no additional reduction in food intake, Annals of Clinical Biochemistry, vol.45, pp.93-98, 2008.

E. Lecona, N. Olmo, J. Turnay, A. Santiago-gómez, I. López-de-silanes et al., Kinetic analysis of butyrate transport in human colon adenocarcinoma cells reveals two different carrier-mediated mechanisms, The Biochemical Journal, vol.409, issue.1, pp.311-331, 2008.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00478774

J. Lee, J. Mo, K. Katakura, I. Alkalay, A. N. Rucker et al., Maintenance of colonic homeostasis by distinctive apical TLR9 signalling in intestinal epithelial cells, Nature Cell Biology, vol.8, issue.12, pp.1327-1363, 2006.

S. H. Lee, Intestinal permeability regulation by tight junction: implication on inflammatory bowel diseases, Intestinal Research, vol.13, issue.1, pp.11-19, 2015.

E. C. Leitch, A. W. Walker, S. H. Duncan, G. Holtrop, and H. J. Flint, Selective colonization of insoluble substrates by human faecal bacteria, Environmental Microbiology, vol.9, issue.3, pp.667-79, 2007.

R. E. Ley, P. J. Turnbaugh, S. Klein, and J. I. Gordon, Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity, Nature, vol.444, issue.7122, pp.1022-1025, 2006.

S. K. Li, D. Zhu, H. Y. Gaisano, and P. L. Brubaker, Role of vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 in exocytosis of glucagon-like peptide-1 from the murine intestinal L cell, Diabetologia, vol.57, issue.4, pp.809-827, 2014.

X. Li and W. Heyer, Homologous recombination in DNA repair and DNA damage tolerance, Cell Research, vol.18, issue.1, pp.99-113, 2008.

Z. Li, A. Chalazonitis, Y. Huang, J. J. Mann, K. G. Margolis et al., Essential roles of enteric neuronal serotonin in gastrointestinal motility and the development/survival of enteric dopaminergic neurons, The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, issue.24, pp.8998-9009, 2011.

G. H. Liang and C. R. Weber, Molecular aspects of tight junction barrier function, Current Opinion in Pharmacology, vol.19, pp.84-93, 2014.

M. R. Lieber, The mechanism of double-strand DNA break repair by the nonhomologous DNA end-joining pathway, Annual Review of Biochemistry, vol.79, pp.181-211, 2010.

H. C. Lin, W. Y. Chey, and X. Zhao, Release of distal gut peptide YY (PYY) by fat in proximal gut depends on CCK?, Peptides, vol.21, issue.10, pp.1561-1563, 2000.

H. C. Lin, C. Neevel, and J. H. Chen, Slowing intestinal transit by PYY depends on serotonergic and opioid pathways, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.286, issue.4, pp.558-63, 2004.

H. C. Lin, C. Neevel, P. Chen, G. Suh, and J. H. Chen, Slowing of intestinal transit by fat or peptide YY depends on beta-adrenergic pathway, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.285, issue.6, pp.1310-1316, 2003.

S. Lin, D. Boey, and H. Herzog, NPY and Y receptors: lessons from transgenic and knockout models, Neuropeptides, vol.38, issue.4, pp.189-200, 2004.

G. Liu, S. Arnaud-dabernat, M. R. Kritzik, A. G. Kayali, Y. Zhang et al., PYY in the expanding pancreatic epithelium, Endocrine, vol.30, issue.1, pp.103-115, 2006.

S. H. Liu, Y. W. Huang, C. T. Wu, C. Y. Chiu, and M. T. Chiang, Low molecular weight chitosan accelerates glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion in human intestinal endocrine cells via a p38-dependent pathway, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, issue.20, pp.4855-61, 2013.

K. Loh, H. Herzog, and Y. Shi, Regulation of energy homeostasis by the NPY system, Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol.26, issue.3, pp.125-135, 2015.

L. López-díaz, R. N. Jain, T. M. Keeley, K. L. Vandussen, C. S. Brunkan et al., Intestinal Neurogenin 3 directs differentiation of a bipotential secretory progenitor to endocrine cell rather than goblet cell fate, Developmental Biology, vol.309, issue.2, pp.298-305, 2007.

P. Louis, G. L. Hold, and H. J. Flint, The gut microbiota, bacterial metabolites and colorectal cancer, Nature Reviews Microbiology, vol.12, issue.10, pp.661-72, 2014.

P. Louis, P. Young, G. Holtrop, and H. J. Flint, Diversity of human colonic butyrate-producing bacteria revealed by analysis of the butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase gene, Environmental Microbiology, vol.12, issue.2, pp.304-318, 2010.

T. D. Luckey, Introduction to intestinal microecology, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.25, issue.12, pp.1292-1296, 1972.

A. Luini, D. Lewis, S. Guild, G. Schofield, and F. Weight, Somatostatin, an inhibitor of ACTH secretion, decreases cytosolic free calcium and voltage-dependent calcium current in a pituitary cell line, The Journal of Neuroscience : The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, vol.6, issue.11, pp.3128-3160, 1986.

J. M. Lundberg, K. Tatemoto, L. Terenius, P. M. Hellström, V. Mutt et al., Localization of peptide YY (PYY) in gastrointestinal endocrine cells and effects on intestinal blood flow and motility, vol.79, pp.4471-4476, 1982.

I. Lundell, Chicken neuropeptide Y-family receptor Y4: a receptor with equal affinity for pancreatic polypeptide, neuropeptide Y and peptide YY, Journal of Molecular Endocrinology, vol.28, issue.3, pp.225-235, 2002.

K. Luo and S. S. Cao, Endoplasmic reticulum stress in intestinal epithelial cell function and inflammatory bowel disease, Gastroenterology Research and Practice, p.328791, 2015.

T. Ma and A. S. Verkman, Aquaporin water channels in gastrointestinal physiology, The Journal of Physiology, vol.517, issue.2, pp.317-343, 1999.

G. T. Macfarlane, G. R. Gibson, E. Beatty, and J. H. Cummings, Estimation of short-chain fatty acid production from protein by human intestinal bacteria based on branched-chain fatty acid measurements, FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol.101, issue.2, pp.81-88, 1992.

S. Macfarlane and G. T. Macfarlane, Regulation of short-chain fatty acid production. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, vol.62, pp.67-72, 2003.

L. Macia, J. Tan, A. T. Vieira, K. Leach, D. Stanley et al., Metabolite-sensing receptors GPR43 and GPR109A facilitate dietary fibre-induced gut homeostasis through regulation of the inflammasome, Nature Communications, vol.6, p.6734, 2015.

L. Macia, E. Yulyaningsih, L. Pangon, A. D. Nguyen, S. Lin et al., Neuropeptide Y1 receptor in immune cells regulates inflammation and insulin resistance associated with diet-induced obesity, Diabetes, issue.12, pp.3228-3266, 2012.

P. W. Maljaars, H. P. Peters, D. J. Mela, and A. A. Masclee, Ileal brake: a sensible food target for appetite control. A review, Physiology & Behavior, vol.95, issue.3, pp.271-81, 2008.

N. J. Mantis, N. Rol, and B. Corthésy, Secretory IgA's complex roles in immunity and mucosal homeostasis in the gut, Mucosal Immunology, vol.4, issue.6, pp.603-614, 2011.

L. Marciani, E. F. Cox, S. E. Pritchard, G. Major, C. L. Hoad et al., Additive effects of gastric volumes and macronutrient composition on the sensation of postprandial fullness in humans, European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.69, issue.3, pp.380-384, 2015.

R. F. Margolskee, J. Dyer, Z. Kokrashvili, K. S. Salmon, E. Ilegems et al., T1R3 and gustducin in gut sense sugars to regulate expression of Na+-glucose cotransporter 1, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.104, 2007.

R. Martone, G. Euskirchen, P. Bertone, S. Hartman, T. E. Royce et al., Distribution of NFkappaB-binding sites across human chromosome 22, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.100, pp.12247-52, 2003.

T. Maruyama, Y. Miyamoto, T. Nakamura, Y. Tamai, H. Okada et al., Identification of membrane-type receptor for bile acids (M-BAR), Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol.298, issue.5, pp.714-719, 2002.

M. Matano, S. Date, M. Shimokawa, A. Takano, M. Fujii et al., Modeling colorectal cancer using CRISPR-Cas9-mediated engineering of human intestinal organoids, Nature Medicine, advance on, 2015.

J. S. Mccullogh, B. Ratcliffe, N. Mandir, K. E. Carr, and R. A. Goodlad, Dietary fibre and intestinal microflora: effects on intestinal morphometry and crypt branching, Gut, vol.42, issue.6, pp.799-806, 1998.

R. Mcgirr, L. Guizzetti, and S. Dhanvantari, The sorting of proglucagon to secretory granules is mediated by carboxypeptidase E and intrinsic sorting signals, The Journal of Endocrinology, vol.217, issue.2, pp.229-269, 2013.

R. Medzhitov, Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response, Nature, issue.7164, pp.819-845, 2007.

J. J. Meier, B. Gallwitz, N. Siepmann, J. J. Holst, C. F. Deacon et al., Gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) dose-dependently stimulates glucagon secretion in healthy human subjects at euglycaemia, Diabetologia, vol.46, issue.6, pp.798-801, 2003.

R. Mentlein, Dipeptidyl-peptidase IV (CD26)--role in the inactivation of regulatory peptides, Regulatory Peptides, vol.85, issue.1, pp.9-24, 1999.

R. Mentlein, Mechanisms underlying the rapid degradation and elimination of the incretin hormones GLP-1 and GIP. Best Practice & Research, Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, vol.23, issue.4, pp.443-52, 2009.

R. Mentlein, P. Dahms, D. Grandt, and R. Krüger, Proteolytic processing of neuropeptide Y and peptide YY by dipeptidyl peptidase IV, Regulatory Peptides, vol.49, issue.2, pp.133-177, 1993.

S. Misra, S. Mahavadi, J. R. Grider, and K. S. Murthy, Differential expression of Y receptors and signaling pathways in intestinal circular and longitudinal smooth muscle, Regulatory Peptides, vol.125, issue.1-3, pp.163-72, 2005.

S. Misra, K. S. Murthy, H. Zhou, and J. R. Grider, Coexpression of Y1, Y2, and Y4 receptors in smooth muscle coupled to distinct signaling pathways, The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, vol.311, issue.3, pp.1154-62, 2004.

A. Miyawaki, J. Llopis, R. Heim, J. M. Mccaffery, J. A. Adams et al., Fluorescent indicators for Ca2+based on green fluorescent proteins and calmodulin, vol.388, pp.882-887, 1997.

F. J. Mojica, C. Diez-villasenor, E. Soria, and G. Juez, Biological significance of a family of regularly spaced repeats in the genomes of Archaea, Bacteria and mitochondria, Molecular Microbiology, vol.36, issue.1, pp.244-246, 2000.

J. Montane, L. Cadavez, and A. Novials, Stress and the inflammatory process: a major cause of pancreatic cell death in type 2 diabetes, Diabetes, Metabolic Syndrome and Obesity : Targets and Therapy, vol.7, pp.25-34, 2014.

M. Montero-hadjadje, S. Elias, L. Chevalier, M. Benard, Y. Tanguy et al., Chromogranin A promotes peptide hormone sorting to mobile granules in constitutively and regulated secreting cells: role of conserved N-and C-terminal peptides, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.284, issue.18, pp.12420-12451, 2009.

C. Moon, K. L. Vandussen, H. Miyoshi, and T. S. Stappenbeck, Development of a primary mouse intestinal epithelial cell monolayer culture system to evaluate factors that modulate IgA transcytosis, Mucosal Immunology, vol.7, issue.4, pp.818-846, 2014.

G. W. Moran, F. C. Leslie, and J. T. Mclaughlin, Crohn's disease affecting the small bowel is associated with reduced appetite and elevated levels of circulating gut peptides, Clinical Nutrition, 2012.

G. W. Moran, C. O'neill, P. Padfield, and J. T. Mclaughlin, Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 expression is reduced in Crohn's disease, Regulatory Peptides, vol.177, issue.1-3, pp.40-45, 2012.

Y. Mori-akiyama, M. Van-den-born, J. H. Van-es, S. R. Hamilton, H. P. Adams et al., SOX9 is required for the differentiation of paneth cells in the intestinal epithelium, Gastroenterology, vol.133, issue.2, pp.539-585, 2007.

R. Moriya, T. Shirakura, H. Hirose, T. Kanno, J. Suzuki et al., NPY Y2 receptor agonist PYY(3-36) inhibits diarrhea by reducing intestinal fluid secretion and slowing colonic transit in mice, Peptides, vol.31, issue.4, pp.671-676, 2010.

J. E. Morley, A. S. Levine, M. Grace, and J. Kneip, Peptide YY (PYY), a potent orexigenic agent, Brain Research, vol.341, issue.1, pp.200-203, 1985.

I. Moschen, A. Bröer, S. Gali?, F. Lang, and S. Bröer, Significance of short chain fatty acid transport by members of the monocarboxylate transporter family (MCT), Neurochemical Research, vol.37, issue.11, pp.2562-2570, 2012.

C. Moss, W. S. Dhillo, G. Frost, and M. Hickson, Gastrointestinal hormones: the regulation of appetite and the anorexia of ageing, Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics : The Official Journal of the British Dietetic Association, vol.25, issue.1, pp.3-15, 2012.

T. D. Müller, R. Nogueiras, M. L. Andermann, Z. B. Andrews, S. D. Anker et al., Ghrelin. Molecular Metabolism, vol.4, issue.6, pp.437-60, 2015.

M. B. Mumphrey, L. M. Patterson, H. Zheng, and H. Berthoud, Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery increases number but not density of CCK-, GLP-1-, 5-HT-, and neurotensin-expressing enteroendocrine cells in rats, Neurogastroenterology and Motility : The Official Journal of the European Gastrointestinal Motility Society, vol.25, issue.1, pp.70-79, 2013.

V. Muncan, O. J. Sansom, L. Tertoolen, T. J. Phesse, H. Begthel et al., Rapid loss of intestinal crypts upon conditional deletion of the Wnt/Tcf-4 target gene c-Myc, Molecular and Cellular Biology, vol.26, issue.22, pp.8418-8444, 2006.

J. A. Murphy, D. N. Criddle, M. Sherwood, M. Chvanov, R. Mukherjee et al., Direct activation of cytosolic Ca2+ signaling and enzyme secretion by cholecystokinin in human pancreatic acinar cells, Gastroenterology, vol.135, issue.2, pp.632-673, 2008.

J. Nakai, M. Ohkura, and K. Imoto, A high signal-to-noise Ca(2+) probe composed of a single green fluorescent protein, Nature Biotechnology, vol.19, issue.2, pp.137-178, 2001.

T. Nakanishi, S. Kanayama, T. Kiyohara, M. Okuno, Y. Shinomura et al., Peptide YY-induced alteration of colonic electrolyte transport in the rat, Regulatory Peptides, issue.2, pp.149-54, 1996.

A. M. Neyrinck, V. F. Van-hée, N. Piront, F. De-backer, O. Toussaint et al., Wheat-derived arabinoxylan oligosaccharides with prebiotic effect increase satietogenic gut peptides and reduce metabolic endotoxemia in diet-induced obese mice, Nutrition and Diabetes, vol.2, issue.1, 2012.

M. Nian, D. J. Drucker, and D. Irwin, Divergent regulation of human and rat proglucagon gene promoters in vivo, The American Journal of Physiology, vol.277, issue.4, pp.829-866, 1999.

J. K. Nicholson, E. Holmes, J. Kinross, R. Burcelin, G. Gibson et al., Host-gut microbiota metabolic interactions, Science, issue.6086, pp.1262-1269, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-00726159

A. G. Nieuwenhuizen, S. Karlsson, T. Fridolf, and B. Ahrén, Mechanisms underlying the insulinostatic effect of peptide YY in mouse pancreatic islets, Diabetologia, vol.37, issue.9, pp.871-879, 1994.

O. Nilsson, A. J. Bilchik, J. R. Goldenring, G. H. Ballantyne, T. E. Adrian et al., Distribution and immunocytochemical colocalization of peptide YY and enteroglucagon in endocrine cells of the rabbit colon, Endocrinology, vol.129, issue.1, pp.139-187, 1991.

M. K. Nøhr, M. H. Pedersen, A. Gille, K. L. Egerod, M. S. Engelstoft et al., GPR41/FFAR3 and GPR43/FFAR2 as Cosensors for Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Enteroendocrine Cells vs FFAR3 in Enteric Neurons and FFAR2 in Enteric Leukocytes. Endocrinology, 2013.

N. Nonaka, S. Shioda, M. L. Niehoff, and W. A. Banks, Characterization of blood-brain barrier permeability to PYY3-36 in the mouse, The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, vol.306, issue.3, pp.948-53, 2003.

M. F. Offield, T. L. Jetton, P. A. Labosky, M. Ray, R. W. Stein et al., PDX-1 is required for pancreatic outgrowth and differentiation of the rostral duodenum, Development, vol.122, issue.3, pp.983-95, 1996.

M. Oosting, S. Cheng, J. M. Bolscher, R. Vestering-stenger, T. S. Plantinga et al., , 2014.

, Human TLR10 is an anti-inflammatory pattern-recognition receptor, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.111, pp.4478-84

J. Ou, F. Carbonero, E. G. Zoetendal, J. P. Delany, M. Wang et al., Diet, microbiota, and microbial metabolites in colon cancer risk in rural Africans and African Americans, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.98, issue.1, pp.111-131, 2013.

D. R. Owens, L. Monnier, and G. B. Bolli, Differential effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists on components of dysglycaemia in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus, Diabetes & Metabolism, vol.39, issue.6, pp.485-96, 2013.

H. L. Pahl, Activators and target genes of Rel/NF-kappaB transcription factors, Oncogene, vol.18, issue.49, pp.6853-66, 1999.

M. Palazzo, A. Balsari, A. Rossini, S. Selleri, C. Calcaterra et al., Activation of enteroendocrine cells via TLRs induces hormone, chemokine, and defensin secretion, Journal of Immunology, vol.178, issue.7, pp.4296-303, 1950.

R. M. Paredes, J. C. Etzler, L. T. Watts, W. Zheng, and J. D. Lechleiter, Chemical calcium indicators, Methods, vol.46, issue.3, pp.143-51, 2008.

H. E. Parker, K. Wallis, C. W. Le-roux, K. Y. Wong, F. Reimann et al., Molecular mechanisms underlying bile acid-stimulated glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion, British Journal of Pharmacology, vol.165, issue.2, pp.414-437, 2012.

R. M. Parker and H. Herzog, Regional distribution of Y-receptor subtype mRNAs in rat brain, European Journal of Neuroscience, vol.11, issue.4, pp.1431-1448, 1999.

J. A. Parnell and R. A. Reimer, Weight loss during oligofructose supplementation is associated with decreased ghrelin and increased peptide YY in overweight and obese adults, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.89, issue.6, pp.1751-1760, 2009.

J. A. Parnell and R. A. Reimer, Prebiotic fibres dose-dependently increase satiety hormones and alter Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes in lean and obese JCR:LA-cp rats, The British Journal of Nutrition, vol.107, issue.4, pp.601-614, 2012.

X. Pedragosa-badia, J. Stichel, and A. G. Beck-sickinger, Neuropeptide Y receptors: how to get subtype selectivity, Frontiers in Endocrinology, vol.4, p.5, 2013.

T. Pelaseyed, J. H. Bergström, J. K. Gustafsson, A. Ermund, G. M. Birchenough et al., The mucus and mucins of the goblet cells and enterocytes provide the first defense line of the gastrointestinal tract and interact with the immune system, Immunological Reviews, vol.260, issue.1, 2014.

M. Penín, M. Perez-fontán, J. Garcia-buela, M. Luisa-isidro, T. Martinez et al., PYY(1-36) and PYY(3-36) secretory response after a mixed meal in healthy individuals, vol.55, pp.333-342, 2008.

R. Peterli, R. E. Steinert, B. Woelnerhanssen, T. Peters, C. Christoffel-courtin et al., Metabolic and hormonal changes after laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy: a randomized, prospective trial, Obesity Surgery, vol.22, issue.5, pp.740-748, 2012.

N. Petersen, F. Reimann, S. Bartfeld, H. F. Farin, F. C. Ringnalda et al., Generation of L cells in mouse and human small intestine organoids, Diabetes, vol.63, issue.2, pp.410-430, 2014.

P. T. Pfluger, J. Kampe, T. R. Castaneda, T. Vahl, D. A. D'alessio et al., Effect of human body weight changes on circulating levels of peptide YY and peptide YY3-36, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.92, issue.2, pp.583-591, 2007.

E. Pouokam, J. Steidle, and M. Diener, Regulation of Colonic Ion Transport by Gasotransmitters, Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol.34, issue.6, pp.789-793, 2011.

S. E. Pryde, S. H. Duncan, G. L. Hold, C. S. Stewart, and H. J. Flint, The microbiology of butyrate formation in the human colon, FEMS Microbiology Letters, vol.217, issue.2, pp.133-139, 2002.

A. Psichas, M. L. Sleeth, K. G. Murphy, L. Brooks, G. A. Bewick et al., The short chain fatty acid propionate stimulates GLP-1 and PYY secretion via free fatty acid receptor 2 in rodents, International Journal of Obesity, vol.39, issue.3, pp.424-433, 2005.

J. Qin, R. Li, J. Raes, M. Arumugam, K. S. Burgdorf et al., A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing, Nature, vol.464, issue.7285, pp.59-65, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/cea-00908974

J. A. Quin, S. A. Sgambati, J. R. Goldenring, M. D. Basson, L. P. Fielding et al., PYY inhibition of VIP-stimulated ion transport in the rabbit distal ileum, The Journal of Surgical Research, vol.58, issue.1, pp.111-116, 1995.

U. Rai, T. R. Thrimawithana, C. Valery, and S. A. Young, Therapeutic uses of somatostatin and its analogues: Current view and potential applications, Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 2015.

F. A. Ran, P. D. Hsu, J. Wright, V. Agarwala, D. A. Scott et al., Genome engineering using the CRISPR-Cas9 system, Nature Protocols, vol.8, issue.11, pp.2281-308, 2013.

H. E. Raybould, Gut chemosensing: interactions between gut endocrine cells and visceral afferents, Autonomic Neuroscience : Basic & Clinical, vol.153, issue.1-2, pp.41-47, 2010.

E. Reboul, Absorption of vitamin A and carotenoids by the enterocyte: focus on transport proteins, Nutrients, vol.5, issue.9, pp.3563-81, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/inserm-01478606

J. F. Rehfeld, The new biology of gastrointestinal hormones, Physiological Reviews, vol.78, issue.4, pp.1087-108, 1998.

J. F. Rehfeld, J. R. Bundgaard, J. Hannibal, X. Zhu, C. Norrbom et al., The cell-specific pattern of cholecystokinin peptides in endocrine cells versus neurons is governed by the expression of prohormone convertases 1/3, 2, and 5/6, Endocrinology, vol.149, issue.4, pp.1600-1608, 2008.

N. Reichardt, S. H. Duncan, P. Young, A. Belenguer, C. Mcwilliam-leitch et al., Phylogenetic distribution of three pathways for propionate production within the human gut microbiota, The ISME Journal, vol.8, issue.6, pp.1323-1358, 2014.

F. Reimann and F. M. Gribble, Glucose-sensing in glucagon-like peptide-1-secreting cells, Diabetes, vol.51, issue.9, pp.2757-63, 2002.

F. Reimann, A. M. Habib, G. Tolhurst, H. E. Parker, G. J. Rogers et al., Glucose sensing in L cells: a primary cell study, Cell Metabolism, vol.8, issue.6, pp.532-541, 2008.

F. Reimann, G. Tolhurst, and F. M. Gribble, G-protein-coupled receptors in intestinal chemosensation, Cell Metabolism, vol.15, issue.4, pp.421-452, 2012.

R. A. Reimer, A Human Cellular Model for Studying the Regulation of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Secretion, Endocrinology, vol.142, issue.10, pp.4522-4528, 2001.

R. A. Reimer, Meat hydrolysate and essential amino acid-induced glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion, in the human NCI-H716 enteroendocrine cell line, is regulated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases, The Journal of Endocrinology, vol.191, issue.1, 2006.

R. A. Reimer, A. D. Maurer, L. K. Eller, M. C. Hallam, R. Shaykhutdinov et al., Satiety hormone and metabolomic response to an intermittent high energy diet differs in rats consuming long-term diets high in protein or prebiotic fiber, Journal of Proteome Research, vol.11, issue.8, pp.4065-74, 2012.

A. Reynolds, N. Wharton, A. Parris, E. Mitchell, A. Sobolewski et al., Canonical Wnt signals combined with suppressed TGF?/BMP pathways promote renewal of the native human colonic epithelium, Gut, vol.63, issue.4, pp.610-631, 2014.

A. E. Rigamonti, S. G. Cella, S. M. Bonomo, G. Mancia, G. Grassi et al., Effect of somatostatin infusion on peptide YY secretion: studies in the acute and recovery phase of anorexia nervosa and in obesity, European Journal of Endocrinology / European Federation of Endocrine Societies, vol.165, issue.3, pp.421-428, 2011.

G. Rindi, A. B. Leiter, A. S. Kopin, C. Bordi, and E. Solcia, The "Normal" Endocrine Cell of the Gut: Changing Concepts and New Evidences, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.1014, issue.1, pp.1-12, 2004.

A. Ritzhaupt, A. Ellis, K. B. Hosie, and S. P. Shirazi-beechey, The characterization of butyrate transport across pig and human colonic luminal membrane, The Journal of Physiology, vol.507, pp.819-849, 1998.

L. S. Rodgers and A. S. Fanning, Regulation of epithelial permeability by the actin cytoskeleton, Cytoskeleton, vol.68, issue.12, pp.653-60, 2011.

S. N. Roed, A. C. Nøhr, P. Wismann, H. Iversen, H. Bräuner-osborne et al., Functional consequences of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor cross talk and trafficking, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.290, issue.2, pp.1233-1276, 2015.

B. J. Rolls, V. H. Castellanos, J. C. Halford, A. Kilara, D. Panyam et al., Volume of food consumed affects satiety in men, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol.67, issue.6, pp.1170-1177, 1998.

A. Ropert, C. Cherbut, C. Roze, A. Le-quellec, J. Holst et al., Colonic fermentation and proximal gastric tone in humans, Gastroenterology, vol.111, issue.2, pp.289-296, 1996.

K. A. Roth, J. M. Hertz, and J. I. Gordon, Mapping enteroendocrine cell populations in transgenic mice reveals an unexpected degree of complexity in cellular differentiation within the gastrointestinal tract, The Journal of Cell Biology, vol.110, issue.5, pp.1791-801, 1990.

Y. Rouillé, S. Martin, and D. F. Steiner, Differential processing of proglucagon by the subtilisin-like prohormone convertases PC2 and PC3 to generate either glucagon or glucagon-like peptide, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.270, issue.44, pp.26488-96, 1995.

J. L. Round and S. K. Mazmanian, The gut microbiota shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease, Nature Reviews. Immunology, vol.9, issue.5, pp.313-336, 2009.

N. Rozengurt, S. V. Wu, M. C. Chen, C. Huang, C. Sternini et al., Colocalization of the alpha-subunit of gustducin with PYY and GLP-1 in L cells of human colon, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.291, issue.5, pp.792-802, 2006.

C. Rumio, D. Besusso, M. Palazzo, S. Selleri, L. Sfondrini et al., Degranulation of paneth cells via toll-like receptor 9, The American Journal of Pathology, vol.165, issue.2, pp.373-81, 2004.

C. Rumio, M. Sommariva, L. Sfondrini, M. Palazzo, D. Morelli et al., Induction of Paneth cell degranulation by orally administered Toll-like receptor ligands, Journal of Cellular Physiology, vol.227, issue.3, pp.1107-1120, 2012.

M. E. Sabbatini, Y. Bi, B. Ji, S. A. Ernst, and J. A. Williams, CCK activates RhoA and Rac1 differentially through Galpha13 and Galphaq in mouse pancreatic acini, vol.298, pp.592-601, 2010.

M. K. Sakharkar, V. T. Chow, and P. Kangueane, Distributions of exons and introns in the human genome, In Silico Biology, vol.4, issue.4, pp.387-93, 2004.

A. H. Sam, D. J. Gunner, A. King, S. J. Persaud, L. Brooks et al., Selective ablation of peptide YY cells in adult mice reveals their role in beta cell survival, Gastroenterology, vol.143, issue.2, pp.459-68, 2012.

B. S. Samuel, A. Shaito, T. Motoike, F. E. Rey, F. Backhed et al., Effects of the gut microbiota on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G protein-coupled receptor, Gpr41, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.105, 2008.

G. I. Sandle, Salt and water absorption in the human colon: a modern appraisal, Gut, vol.43, issue.2, pp.294-299, 1998.

G. J. Sanger, Motilin receptor neuropharmacology: revised understanding, Current Opinion in Pharmacology, vol.12, issue.6, pp.641-647, 2012.

R. Santaolalla and M. T. Abreu, Innate immunity in the small intestine, Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, vol.28, issue.2, pp.124-133, 2012.

T. Sato, D. E. Stange, M. Ferrante, R. G. Vries, J. H. Van-es et al., Long-term Expansion of Epithelial Organoids From Human Colon, 2011.

T. Sato, R. G. Vries, H. J. Snippert, M. Van-de-wetering, N. Barker et al., Single Lgr5 stem cells build crypt-villus structures in vitro without a mesenchymal niche, Nature, issue.7244, pp.262-267, 2009.

D. C. Savage, Microbial ecology of the gastrointestinal tract, Annual Review of Microbiology, vol.31, pp.107-140, 1977.

A. P. Savage, T. E. Adrian, G. Carolan, V. K. Chatterjee, and S. R. Bloom, Effects of peptide YY (PYY) on mouth to caecum intestinal transit time and on the rate of gastric emptying in healthy volunteers, Gut, vol.28, issue.2, pp.166-70, 1987.

J. Schindelin, I. Arganda-carreras, E. Frise, V. Kaynig, M. Longair et al., Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis, Nature Methods, vol.9, issue.7, pp.676-82, 2012.

J. Schmidt, N. J. Smith, E. Christiansen, I. G. Tikhonova, M. Grundmann et al., Selective orthosteric free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2) agonists: identification of the structural and chemical requirements for selective activation of FFA2 versus FFA3, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.286, issue.12, 2011.

P. T. Schmidt, T. Ljung, B. Hartmann, K. J. Hare, J. J. Holst et al., Tissue levels and post-prandial secretion of the intestinal growth factor, glucagon-like peptide-2, in controls and inflammatory bowel disease: comparison with peptide YY, European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, vol.17, issue.2, pp.207-219, 2005.

M. L. Schubert, Gastric secretion, Current Opinion in Gastroenterology, vol.26, issue.6, pp.598-603, 2010.

M. W. Schwartz, S. C. Woods, D. Porte, R. J. Seeley, and D. G. Baskin, Central nervous system control of food intake, Nature, vol.404, issue.6778, pp.661-71, 2000.

W. Schwizer, J. Borovicka, P. Kunz, R. Fraser, C. Kreiss et al., Role of cholecystokinin in the regulation of liquid gastric emptying and gastric motility in humans: studies with the CCK antagonist loxiglumide, Gut, vol.41, issue.4, pp.500-504, 1997.

Y. Sei, X. Lu, A. Liou, X. Zhao, and S. A. Wank, A stem cell marker-expressing subset of enteroendocrine cells resides at the crypt base in the small intestine, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.300, issue.2, pp.345-56, 2011.

S. Seino and T. Shibasaki, PKA-dependent and PKA-independent pathways for cAMP-regulated exocytosis, Physiological Reviews, vol.85, issue.4, pp.1303-1345, 2005.

Y. Seino, M. Fukushima, and D. Yabe, GIP and GLP-1, the two incretin hormones: Similarities and differences, Journal of Diabetes Investigation, vol.1, issue.1-2, pp.8-23, 2010.

J. Shen, M. S. Obin, and L. Zhao, The Gut Microbiota, Obesity and Insulin Resistance, Molecular Aspects of Medicine, vol.34, issue.1, pp.39-58, 2013.

Y. Shi and P. A. Baldock, Central and peripheral mechanisms of the NPY system in the regulation of bone and adipose tissue, Bone, vol.50, issue.2, pp.430-436, 2012.

Y. Shi, Z. Lin, J. Lau, H. Zhang, M. Yagi et al., PYY3-36 and pancreatic polypeptide reduce food intake in an additive manner via distinct hypothalamic dependent pathways in mice, Obesity, issue.12, p.21, 2013.

N. F. Shroyer, D. Wallis, K. J. Venken, H. J. Bellen, and H. Y. Zoghbi, Gfi1 functions downstream of Math1 to control intestinal secretory cell subtype allocation and differentiation, Genes & Development, vol.19, issue.20, pp.2412-2419, 2005.

T. Siahanidou, H. Mandyla, H. Militsi, I. Papassotiriou, and G. Chrousos, Peptide YY (3-36) represents a high percentage of total PYY immunoreactivity in preterm and full-term infants and correlates independently with markers of adiposity and serum ghrelin concentrations, Pediatric Research, vol.62, issue.2, pp.200-203, 2007.

S. Siavoshian, J. P. Segain, M. Kornprobst, C. Bonnet, C. Cherbut et al., Butyrate and trichostatin A effects on the proliferation/differentiation of human intestinal epithelial cells: induction of cyclin D3 and p21 expression, Gut, vol.46, issue.4, pp.507-521, 2000.

A. K. Simpson, P. S. Ward, K. Y. Wong, G. J. Collord, A. M. Habib et al., Cyclic AMP triggers glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion from the GLUTag enteroendocrine cell line, Diabetologia, vol.50, issue.10, pp.2181-2190, 2007.

C. Sitticharoon, S. Chatree, and M. Churintaraphan, Expressions of neuropeptide Y and Y1 receptor in subcutaneous and visceral fat tissues in normal weight and obese humans and their correlations with clinical parameters and peripheral metabolic factors, Regulatory Peptides, vol.185, pp.65-72, 2013.

F. K. Siu, I. P. Lam, J. Y. Chu, and B. K. Chow, Signaling mechanisms of secretin receptor, Regulatory Peptides, vol.137, issue.1-2, pp.95-104, 2006.

A. W. Stadnyk, Cytokine production by epithelial cells, FASEB Journal : Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, vol.8, issue.13, pp.1041-1048, 1994.

B. Z. Stanger, R. Datar, L. C. Murtaugh, and D. A. Melton, Direct regulation of intestinal fate by Notch, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.102, pp.12443-12451, 2005.

A. Stengel and Y. Taché, Gastric peptides and their regulation of hunger and satiety, Current Gastroenterology Reports, vol.14, issue.6, pp.480-488, 2012.

M. F. Stolk, K. J. Erpecum, . Van, T. L. Peeters, M. Samsom et al., Interdigestive Gallbladder Emptying, Antroduodenal Motility, and Motilin Release Patterns Are Altered in Cholesterol Gallstone Patients, Digestive Diseases and Sciences, vol.46, issue.6, pp.1328-1334, 2001.

F. Stümpel, R. Burcelin, K. Jungermann, and B. Thorens, Normal kinetics of intestinal glucose absorption in the absence of GLUT2: evidence for a transport pathway requiring glucose phosphorylation and transfer into the endoplasmic reticulum, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.98, pp.11330-11335, 2001.

A. Suau, R. Bonnet, M. Sutren, J. J. Godon, G. R. Gibson et al., Direct analysis of genes encoding 16S rRNA from complex communities reveals many novel molecular species within the human gut, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol.65, issue.11, pp.4799-807, 1999.

B. Svendsen, J. Pedersen, N. Jacob-wewer-albrechtsen, B. Hartmann, S. Toräng et al., An analysis of co-secretion and co-expression of gut hormones from male rat proximal and distal small intestine, Endocrinology, vol.156, issue.3, 2014.

A. G. Sykaras, C. Demenis, R. M. Case, J. T. Mclaughlin, and C. P. Smith, Duodenal enteroendocrine I-cells contain mRNA transcripts encoding key endocannabinoid and Fatty Acid receptors, PloS One, vol.7, issue.8, 2012.

S. Tachon, J. Zhou, M. Keenan, R. Martin, and M. L. Marco, The intestinal microbiota in aged mice is modulated by dietary resistant starch and correlated with improvements in host responses, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 2012.

N. Takahashi, H. Hatakeyama, H. Okado, J. Noguchi, M. Ohno et al., SNARE conformational changes that prepare vesicles for exocytosis, Cell Metabolism, vol.12, issue.1, pp.19-29, 2010.

T. Takahashi, Mechanism of interdigestive migrating motor complex, Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility, vol.18, issue.3, pp.246-57, 2012.

H. Tanabe, T. Ayabe, B. Bainbridge, T. Guina, R. K. Ernst et al., Mouse paneth cell secretory responses to cell surface glycolipids of virulent and attenuated pathogenic bacteria, Infection and Immunity, vol.73, issue.4, 2005.

J. Tap, S. Mondot, F. Levenez, E. Pelletier, C. Caron et al., Towards the human intestinal microbiota phylogenetic core, Environmental Microbiology, vol.11, issue.10, pp.2574-84, 2009.

H. Tazoe, Y. Otomo, S. Karaki, I. Kato, Y. Fukami et al., Expression of short-chain fatty acid receptor GPR41 in the human colon, Biomedical Research, vol.30, issue.3, pp.149-56, 2009.

M. Thangaraju, G. A. Cresci, K. Liu, S. Ananth, J. P. Gnanaprakasam et al., GPR109A is a G-protein-coupled receptor for the bacterial fermentation product butyrate and functions as a tumor suppressor in colon, Cancer Research, vol.69, issue.7, pp.2826-2858, 2009.

E. C. Toescu and G. Dayanithi, Neuroendocrine signalling: natural variations on a Ca2+ theme, Cell Calcium, vol.51, issue.3-4, pp.207-218, 2012.

G. Tolhurst, H. Heffron, Y. S. Lam, H. E. Parker, A. M. Habib et al., Short-chain fatty acids stimulate glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion via the G-protein-coupled receptor FFAR2, Diabetes, issue.2, pp.364-71, 2012.

G. Tolhurst, Y. Zheng, H. E. Parker, A. M. Habib, F. Reimann et al., Glutamine triggers and potentiates glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion by raising cytosolic Ca2+ and cAMP, Endocrinology, vol.152, issue.2, pp.405-418, 2011.

I. R. Tough, S. Forbes, R. Tolhurst, M. Ellis, H. Herzog et al., Endogenous peptide YY and neuropeptide Y inhibit colonic ion transport, contractility and transit differentially via Y? and Y? receptors, British Journal of Pharmacology, vol.164, issue.2b, pp.471-84, 2011.

R. Y. Tsien, T. J. Rink, and M. Poenie, Measurement of cytosolic free Ca2+ in individual small cells using fluorescence microscopy with dual excitation wavelengths, Cell Calcium, vol.6, issue.1-2, pp.145-57, 1985.

P. J. Turnbaugh, M. Hamady, T. Yatsunenko, B. L. Cantarel, A. Duncan et al., A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins, Nature, vol.457, issue.7228, pp.480-484, 2009.

P. J. Turnbaugh, R. E. Ley, M. A. Mahowald, V. Magrini, E. R. Mardis et al., An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest, Nature, vol.444, issue.7122, pp.1027-1058, 2006.

I. A. Udalova, R. Mott, D. Field, and D. Kwiatkowski, Quantitative prediction of NF-kappa B DNA-protein interactions, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.99, pp.8167-72, 2002.

S. Unniappan, C. H. Mcintosh, H. Demuth, U. Heiser, R. Wolf et al., Effects of dipeptidyl peptidase IV on the satiety actions of peptide YY, Diabetologia, vol.49, issue.8, pp.1915-1938, 2006.

A. M. Van-den-hoek, A. C. Heijboer, E. P. Corssmit, P. J. Voshol, J. A. Romijn et al., PYY3-36 reinforces insulin action on glucose disposal in mice fed a high-fat diet, Diabetes, vol.53, issue.8, pp.1949-52, 2004.

A. M. Van-den-hoek, A. C. Heijboer, P. J. Voshol, L. M. Havekes, J. A. Romijn et al., Chronic PYY3-36 treatment promotes fat oxidation and ameliorates insulin resistance in C57BL6 mice, American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.292, issue.1, 2007.

M. Van-der-sluis, B. A. De-koning, A. C. De-bruijn, A. Velcich, J. P. Meijerink et al., Muc2-deficient mice spontaneously develop colitis, indicating that MUC2 is critical for colonic protection, Gastroenterology, vol.131, issue.1, pp.117-146, 2006.

D. Vandeputte, G. Falony, S. Vieira-silva, R. Y. Tito, M. Joossens et al., Stool consistency is strongly associated with gut microbiota richness and composition, enterotypes and bacterial growth rates, Gut, 2015.

M. Vital, A. C. Howe, and J. M. Tiedje, Revealing the bacterial butyrate synthesis pathways by analyzing (meta)genomic data, mBio, vol.5, issue.2, p.889, 2014.

L. M. Wakefield and C. S. Hill, Beyond TGF?: roles of other TGF? superfamily members in cancer, Nature Reviews. Cancer, vol.13, issue.5, pp.328-369, 2013.

A. W. Walker, J. Ince, S. H. Duncan, L. M. Webster, G. Holtrop et al., Dominant and diet-responsive groups of bacteria within the human colonic microbiota, The ISME Journal, vol.5, issue.2, 2011.

L. Wang, G. Gourcerol, P. Yuan, S. V. Wu, M. Million et al., Peripheral peptide YY inhibits propulsive colonic motor function through Y2 receptor in conscious mice, American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology, vol.298, issue.1, pp.45-56, 2010.

T. Y. Wang, M. Liu, P. Portincasa, D. Q. Wang, and .. , New insights into the molecular mechanism of intestinal fatty acid absorption, European Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol.43, issue.11, pp.1203-1226, 2013.

Z. Wang and D. C. Thurmond, Mechanisms of biphasic insulin-granule exocytosis -roles of the cytoskeleton, small GTPases and SNARE proteins, Journal of Cell Science, vol.122, pp.893-903, 2009.

C. Wei, J. Liu, Z. Yu, B. Zhang, G. Gao et al., TALEN or Cas9 -Rapid, Efficient and Specific Choices for Genome Modifications, Journal of Genetics and Genomics, vol.40, issue.6, pp.289-281, 2013.

C. M. Weise, P. Thiyyagura, E. M. Reiman, K. Chen, and J. Krakoff, Postprandial plasma PYY concentrations are associated with increased regional gray matter volume and rCBF declines in caudate nuclei--a combined MRI and H2(15)O PET study, NeuroImage, vol.60, issue.1, pp.592-600, 2012.

M. Werling, L. Fändriks, P. Björklund, A. Maleckas, J. Brandberg et al., Long-term results of a randomized clinical trial comparing Roux-en-Y gastric bypass with vertical banded gastroplasty, The British Journal of Surgery, 2012.

A. Wichmann, A. Allahyar, T. U. Greiner, H. Plovier, G. Ö. Lundén et al., Microbial modulation of energy availability in the colon regulates intestinal transit, Cell Host & Microbe, vol.14, issue.5, pp.582-90, 2013.

J. M. Wojcicki, Peptide YY in children: a review, Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism : JPEM, vol.25, issue.3-4, pp.227-259, 2012.

T. M. Wolever, R. G. Josse, L. A. Leiter, and J. L. Chiasson, Time of day and glucose tolerance status affect serum shortchain fatty acid concentrations in humans, Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, vol.46, issue.7, pp.805-816, 1997.

I. P. Wong, F. Driessler, E. C. Khor, Y. Shi, B. Hörmer et al., Peptide YY regulates bone remodeling in mice: a link between gut and skeletal biology, PloS One, vol.7, issue.7, 2012.

B. S. Wostmann, C. Larkin, A. Moriarty, and E. Bruckner-kardoss, Dietary intake, energy metabolism, and excretory losses of adult male germfree Wistar rats, Laboratory Animal Science, vol.33, issue.1, pp.46-50, 1983.

A. M. Wren, L. J. Seal, M. A. Cohen, A. E. Brynes, G. S. Frost et al., Ghrelin enhances appetite and increases food intake in humans, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.86, issue.12, p.5992, 2001.

G. D. Wu, J. Chen, C. Hoffmann, K. Bittinger, Y. Chen et al., Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes, Science, issue.6052, pp.105-113, 2011.

Q. Wu, M. S. Clark, and R. D. Palmiter, Deciphering a neuronal circuit that mediates appetite, Nature, vol.483, issue.7391, pp.594-601, 2012.

T. Yamagata, H. Urano, E. J. Weeber, D. L. Nelson, and I. Nishijima, Impaired hippocampal synaptic function in secretin deficient mice, Neuroscience, vol.154, issue.4, pp.1417-1439, 2008.

H. Yang, Central and peripheral regulation of gastric acid secretion by peptide YY, Peptides, vol.23, issue.2, pp.349-58, 2002.

J. Yang, M. S. Brown, G. Liang, N. V. Grishin, and J. L. Goldstein, Identification of the acyltransferase that octanoylates ghrelin, an appetite-stimulating peptide hormone, Cell, vol.132, issue.3, pp.387-96, 2008.

K. Yang, H. Guan, E. Arany, D. J. Hill, and X. Cao, Neuropeptide Y is produced in visceral adipose tissue and promotes proliferation of adipocyte precursor cells via the Y1 receptor, FASEB Journal : Official Publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology, vol.22, issue.7, pp.2452-64, 2008.

Q. Yang, N. A. Bermingham, M. J. Finegold, and H. Y. Zoghbi, Requirement of Math1 for secretory cell lineage commitment in the mouse intestine, Science, vol.294, issue.5549, pp.2155-2163, 2001.

D. Z. Ye and K. H. Kaestner, Foxa1 and Foxa2 control the differentiation of goblet and enteroendocrine L-and D-cells in mice, Gastroenterology, vol.137, issue.6, pp.2052-62, 2009.

K. K. Yee, S. K. Sukumaran, R. Kotha, T. A. Gilbertson, and R. F. Margolskee, Glucose transporters and ATP-gated K+ (KATP) metabolic sensors are present in type 1 taste receptor 3 (T1r3)-expressing taste cells, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol.108, pp.5431-5437, 2011.

K. Yoshinaga, T. Mochizuki, N. Yanaihara, K. Oshima, M. Izukura et al., Structural requirements of peptide YY for biological activity at enteric sites, The American Journal of Physiology, vol.263, issue.5, pp.695-701, 1992.

J. Zhang, S. S. Ferguson, L. S. Barak, L. Ménard, and M. G. Caron, Dynamin and beta-arrestin reveal distinct mechanisms for G protein-coupled receptor internalization, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol.271, issue.31, pp.18302-18307, 1996.

L. Zhang, A. D. Nguyen, I. J. Lee, E. Yulyaningsih, S. J. Riepler et al., NPY modulates PYY function in the regulation of energy balance and glucose homeostasis, Obesity & Metabolism, vol.14, issue.8, pp.727-736, 2012.

L. Zheng, T. E. Riehl, and W. F. Stenson, Regulation of colonic epithelial repair in mice by Toll-like receptors and hyaluronic acid, Gastroenterology, vol.137, issue.6, pp.2041-51, 2009.

J. Zhou, M. Hegsted, K. L. Mccutcheon, M. J. Keenan, X. Xi et al., Peptide YY and proglucagon mRNA expression patterns and regulation in the gut, Obesity, vol.14, issue.4, pp.683-692, 2006.

J. Zhou, R. J. Martin, R. T. Tulley, A. M. Raggio, K. L. Mccutcheon et al., Dietary resistant starch upregulates total GLP-1 and PYY in a sustained day-long manner through fermentation in rodents, American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism, vol.295, issue.5, pp.1160-1166, 2008.

M. Ferrer, O. V. Golyshina, and T. N. Chernikova, Novel hydrolase diversity retrieved from a metagenome library of bovine rumen microflora, Environ Microbiol, vol.7, 1996.

B. V. Jones, M. Begley, and C. Hill, Functional and comparative metagenomic analysis of bile salt hydrolase activity in the human gut microbiome, Proc Natl Acad Sci, vol.105, pp.13580-13585, 2008.

L. Tasse, J. Bercovici, and S. Pizzut-serin, Functional metagenomics to mine the human gut microbiome for dietary fiber catabolic enzymes, Genome Res, vol.20, pp.1605-1612, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01204274

S. Ladevèze, L. Tarquis, and D. A. Cecchini, Role of glycoside-phosphorylases in mannose foraging by human gut bacteria, J Biol Chem, vol.288, pp.32370-32383, 2013.

D. A. Cecchini, E. Laville, and S. Laguerre, Functional metagenomics reveals novel pathways of prebiotic breakdown by human gut bacteria, PLoS ONE, vol.8, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01189721

G. Kaci, O. Lakhdari, and J. Doré, Inhibition of the NF-kappaB pathway in human intestinal epithelial cells by commensal Streptococcus salivarius, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.77, pp.4681-4684, 2011.

S. Rocha, C. Lakhdari, O. Blottière, and H. M. , Anti-inflammatory properties of dairy lactobacilli, Inflamm Bowel Dis, vol.18, pp.657-666, 2012.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00632487

A. Madi, O. Lakhdari, and H. M. Blottière, The clinical Pseudomonas fluorescens MFN1032 strain exerts a cytotoxic effect on epithelial intestinal cells and induces Interleukin-8 via the AP-1 signaling pathway, BMC Microbiol, vol.10, p.215, 2010.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01938265

K. Gloux, M. Leclerc, and H. Iliozer, Development of high-throughput phenotyping of metagenomic clones from the human gut microbiome for modulation of eukaryotic cell growth, Appl Environ Microbiol, vol.73, pp.3734-3737, 2007.

O. Lakhdari, A. Cultrone, and J. Tap, Functional metagenomics: a high throughput screening method to decipher microbiota-driven NF-?B modulation in the human gut, Environ Microbiol, vol.5, pp.879-886, 2004.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01204302

D. Dobrijevic, D. Liberto, G. Tanaka, and K. , High-throughput system for the presentation of secreted and surface-exposed proteins from Gram-positive bacteria in functional metagenomics studies, PLoS ONE, vol.8, p.65956, 2013.
URL : https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01190549

G. P. and J. , were members of the European Marie-Curie Initial Training Network Cross talk, were members of ANR consortium AlimIntest

, HEALTH-F4-2007-201052 and Metagenomics in Cardiometabolic Diseases

H. M. Blottière, W. M. De-vos, and S. D. Ehrlich, Human intestinal metagenomics: state of the art and future, 2013.

, Curr Opin Microbiol, vol.16, pp.232-239

A. Suau, R. Bonnet, and M. Sutren, , 1999.

J. Handelsman, Metagenomics: application of genomics to uncultured microorganisms, Microbiol Mol Biol Rev, vol.68, pp.669-685, 2004.

F. G. Healy, R. M. Ray, and H. C. Aldrich, Direct iso, 1995.

J. Walter, M. Mangold, and G. W. Tannock, Construction, analysis, and beta-glucanase screening of a bac, 2005.